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HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE,  Publishers 
dl-33-35  West  15th  Street,  New  York  City 


A  NEW 

SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT 


BY 

LEVI   SEELEY,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF   PEDAGOGY,  IN   THE   STATi:  NORMAL   SCHOOL,    TRKNTON,  N.J. 

/S>832. 


I 


HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE,  Publishers 
31.33-35  West  15TH  Street   -   -   -   New  York  City 


COPYRIGHT,  1903,  BY  HINDS  &  NOBLE. 

Entered  at  Statiofiers  HalU 

ALL    RIGHTS    lUESERVBD. 


PREFACE 


Possibly  no  feature  of  the  vocation  of  teaching  gives 
the  young  teacher  greater  soUcitude  as  he  anticipates  his 
future  work  than  that  of  successfully  managing  his  school. 
To  do  this  requires  judgment,  skill,  and  tact,  together  with 
as  complete  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  school  management 
as  he  is  able  to  acquire.  The  teacher's  knowledge  of  sub- 
ject-matter and  of  general  pedagogy  may  be  comprehen- 
sive, and  his  skill  in  the  details  of  method  may  be  excellent, 
and  yet  a  complete  failure  may  follow  because  of  his  inabil- 
ity to  manage  children  and  properly  to  conduct  a  school. 
Hence,  the  teacher  who  has  failed  to  equip  himself  in  this 
field  jeopardizes  his  success  and  invites  disaster. 

This  book  is  intended  chiefly  for  students  in  normal 
schools  and  training  classes,  and  for  young  teachers  who 
have  been  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  the  privileges  of  a 
course  in  a  professional  school,  but  who  are  compelled  to 
prepare  themselves  independently  for  the  work  of  teaching. 
Hence,  I  have  endeavored  to  be  very  explicit,  and  to  em- 
ploy many  concrete  illustrations  drawn  from  a  long  experi- 
ence in  teaching.  Doubtless  experienced  teachers  also 
will  find  profit  in  a  study  of  these  pages ;  not  so  much 
from  a  presentation  of  new  material  as  from  a  treatment 
which  attempts  to  determine  the  underlying  principles. 
Very  often  teachers  have  followed  practices  —  good  or  bad 
= —  without  knowing  why  they  have  done  so.     Their  peda- 


iv  l^REFACE, 

gogical  practices  would  be  far  more  effective  if  they  were 
to  be  sure  of  the  ground  on  which  they  stand.  There  is 
a  great  difference  between  following  a  correct  practice 
through  accident  or  because  others  have  been  known  to 
follow  it  successfully,  and  in  following  a  practice  that  is 
based  on  sound  principles.  Therefore  teachers  of  long 
experience  may  be  helped  to  conform  the  management  of 
their  schools  to  sound  educational  doctrine.  Reading  cir- 
cles and  teachers'  clubs  also  will  find  an  abundance  of 
material  for  discussion.  The  leading  practical  questions 
concerning  the  internal  direction  of  the  school  are  pre- 
sented for  their  consideration. 

It  is  very  likely  that  many  of  the  discussions  presented 
will  be  criticised  as  commonplace.  But  that  which  has 
become  commonplace  to  the  initiated  is  novel  to  the  begin- 
ner. After  carefully  considering  every  discussion  offered, 
I  can  think  of  none  that  I  would  not  have  welcomed  as  a 
young  teacher  had  such  been  offered  to  me  —  unless  it  be 
some  of  the  subjects  that  no  one  will  denominate  as  com- 
monplace. Many  of  the  experiences  here  related  were 
gained  at  the  expense  of  my  pupils,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
at  great  cost  to  me.  I  would  save  other  young  teachers 
from  the  errors  which  I  made ;  hence  the  freedom  with 
which  these  experiences  are  detailed. 

But  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  also  a  theory  —  a  philo- 
sophical basis  —  to  every  theme  treated  throughout  the 
book,  which,  I  hope,  is  apparent  to  all.  Therefore  less 
attention  is  paid  to  devices  and  plans  of  managing  a  school 
than  to  principles.  With  certain  principles  to  guide  him, 
the  teacher  will  be  able  to  form  his  own  plans  and  employ 
devices  suited  tj  particular  situations  and  adapted  to  his 
own  individuality. 


PREFACE.  V 

The  experiences  here  presented  are  the  results  of  many 
years  of  school-work  in  almost  every  field  of  pedagogical 
activity.  That  work  began  in  a  district  school  with  sev- 
enty-five pupils  of  every  degree  of  advancement,  and  in 
ages  ranging  from  five  to  twenty-one  years  —  a  most  ad- 
vantageous place  in  which  to  gain  experience  and  acquire 
skill  in  the  management  of  children.  This  was  succeeded 
by  varied  positions  as  principal  and  superintendent.  Fi- 
nally, it  has  been  my  privilege  to  present  year  after  year 
the  subject  of  school  management  to  hundreds  of  students 
in  the  normal  school.  In  this  latter  work  the  purpose  has 
been  to  give  the  most  practical  and  concrete  presentation 
of  the  subject  so  that  the  young  teachers  may  gain  confi- 
dence in  their  ability  to  conduct  and  control  a  school,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  possess  a  correct  theory  of  school  man- 
agement. The  needs  of  a  teacher  in  charge  of  a  mixed 
school  are  held  prominently  in  view  throughout  this  book, 
although  teachers  in  graded  schools  also  will  find  help 
through  the  experiences  and  principles  presented. 

A  work  on  school  management  should  consider  the  char- 
acter of  the  teacher,  school  discipline,  good  order,  proper 
habits,  correct  morals,  relation  of  the  school  to  the  com- 
munity, as  well  as  other  matters  connected  with  the  inter- 
nal affairs  of  the  school,  such  as  promotion,  classification 
of  the  school,  the  daily  program,  school  incentives,  the  con- 
ducting of  the  recitations,  relation  between  principals  and 
assistants,  school  hygiene,  etc.  In  a  word,  it  should,  as  its 
name  implies,  deal  with  the  working  of  the  school  rather 
than  with  methods,  courses  of  study,  or  the  philosophy  of 
education.     This  is  the  view  that  is  held  in  this  treatise. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  some  of  the  topics  consid- 
ered in  my  "  Foundations  of  Education,"  as  well  as  some 


vi  PREFACE. 

of  the  illustrations  employed  there,  are  used  in  this  book. 
If  any  apology  for  this  is  necessary,  I  may  say  that  some 
of  the  chapters  in  "Foundations"  have  a  direct  bearing 
upon  school  management  and  therefore  could  not  be 
omitted  from  this  book.  Where  the  illustrations  given  in 
the  earlier  book  were  needed  in  this,  I  have  not  hesitated 
to  employ  them.  It  is  hoped  that  the  reader  of  both  will 
not  find  a  sameness  in  the  discussions,  or  that  the  repeti- 
tions are  unprofitable. 

It  affords  me  great  pleasure  in  this  connection  to  express 
my  thanks  to  Superintendent  J.  W.  Can*  of  Anderson, 
Ind.,  for  his  permission  to  use  his  course  in  moral  instruc- 
tion in  the  Appendk ;  to  Miss  Kate  D.  Stout  and  Professor 
Frank  H.  Scobey  of  the  Trenton  Normal  School,  to  Su- 
perintendent John  Enright  of  Freehold,  N.J.,  and  to  Hon. 
Charles  J.  Baxter,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Trenton,  N.J.,  for  most  valuable  advice  concerning 
various  chapters ;  and  also  to  Dr.  Elias  F.  Carr,  another 
colleague  in  the  Trenton  Normal  School,  for  most  pains- 
taking, searching,  and  judicious  criticisms  of  the  whole 
work.  To  many  others  who  by  correspondence,  conversa- 
tion, or  advice  have  encouraged  and  assisted  me  in  the 
preparation  of  this  book,  I  hereby  express  my  grateful 
appreciation. 

L.   SEELEY. 

State  Normal  School, 
Trenton,  N.J. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PAGB 

The  Personality  of  the  Teacher i 

Introduction. —  The  State  and  Education.  —  High  calling  of 
ihe  teacher.  —  Qualities  that  teachers  should  possess, 

CHAPTER  n. 

Preparation  and  Responsibility  of  the  Teacher 12 

Academic  training.  —  Professional  training.  —  Responsibility 
of  the  teacher. —  For  personal  example. —  For  physical  well-being 
of  pupils.  —  For  their  moral  training. —  For  their  intellectual 
growth. — General  responsibility.  —  Rewards  of  the  teacher. — 
Salary. —  Improvement  of  his  pupils.  —  Their  success  in  life. — 
Consciousness  of  duty  done. 

CHAPTER    III. 

Preparation  for  Opening  School 25 

Securing  a  position.  —  By  correspondence.  —  By  personal 
application.  —  By  teachers'  bureaus.  — The  contract.  —  Entering 
the  field.  —  Secure  boarding  place.  —  Study  schoolroom  and 
appliances. —  Listen  to  no  tattling. 


33 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  First  Day  of  School 

Gathering  at  the  school.  —  Opening  school.  ^ — -Securing 
names.  —  Seating.  —  Follow  the  prepared  schedule  of  work, — 
Employment,  —  Recapitulation. 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Daily  Schedule  of  Work 41 

The  tentative  program.  —  Daily  lessons.  —  The  recess. — 
The  one-session  plan.  —  Number  of  daily  recitations.  —  Seat 
work.  —  Recapitulation, 


VIU  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PAGB 

Classification  of  the  School 51 

The  city  school. — The  country  school.  —  Grading  in  Ger- 
man country  schools. —  Advartages  of  the  mixed  school. — 
Advantages  of  the  graded  school.  —  The  transportation  of  pupils. 

—  How  to  grade.  —  A  three-grade  scheme. 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

School  Government 65 

Discipline  a  means  to  an  end.  —  Obedience.  —  Nagging.  — 
Aims  at  good  habits.  —  Rules  and  how  to  make  them.  —  Appeal 
to  honor  as  a  means  of  discipline.  —  Use  of  monitors.  —  Keeping 
control.  —  A  rational  relation  between  teachers  and  pupils. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Punishment 84 

Definition     of    punishment.  —  Principles     governing    punish- 
ment. —  Kinds  of  punishment. —  Reproof.  —  Isolation. —  With- 
drawal   of  privileges. —  Withdrawal    of   confidence.  —  Consult' 
parents.  —  Suspension.  —  Expulsion.  —  Corporal  punishment. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Treatment  of  School  Evils loi 

Carelessness.  —  Laziness.  —  Tardiness.  —  Irregularity  in  at- 
tendance. —  Tale-bearing.  —  Whispering. —  Lying. —  Cheating. 

—  Stealing.  —  Imprudence.  —  Rebellion. 

CHAPTER  X. 

School  Virtues 122 

Neatness. —  Accuracy. —  Silence.  —  Industry.  —  Truthfulness. 

—  Regard  for  duty.  —  Politeness. 

CHAPTER  XL 

School  Morals -     138 

Character  of  the  teacher.  —  Importance  of  moral  instruc- 
tion. —  How  to  teach  morals.  —  Utilize  school  interests. —  The 
physical  side  of  the  child's  life.  —  Keep  employed.  —  U.-e  of  daily 
incidents.  —  Use  of  environment.  —  Select  lessons  from  literature 
and  history.  —  Morals  at  recess.  —  Children  to  be  helpful. 


/ 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PACK 

CHAPTER   XII. 

Cautions  to  Teachers iSS 

Young  teachers  need  help.  —  Never  use  sarcasm.  —  Avoid 
threatening  and  scolding.  —  Be  truthful.  —  Do  not  be  too  quick 
in  condemning  a  child.  —  When  to  give  and  when  to  withhold 
assistance.  —  Treatment  of  the  dullard.  —  Do  not  see  too  much 
mischief.  —  You  are  dealing  with  an  immortal  being. 

CHAPTER    XIII."' 

Incentives  to  School-work 171 

Emulation.  — ■  Class  rank.  —  Prizes.  —  Marking.  —  Purpose  of 
marking.  —  Method  suggested. — The  highest  incentive. 

CHAPTER   XIV, 

Promotion 184 

History  of.  —  Object  of. —  Frequency  of. —  Importance  of 
teacher's  judgment.  —  Means  of  determining  fitness. 

CHAPTER   XV. 

Examinations,  Tests,  and  Reviews 195 

Definition  of  examination.  —  Characteristics  of  an  examina- 
tion. —  Educational  value  of  the  examination.  —  Character  of.  — 
Tests.  —  Reviews. 

CHAPTER   XVl! 

The  Recitation 207 

Use  of  the  term.  —  Assigning  the  lesson.  —  How  to  study.  — 
The  art  of  questioning.  —  Necessity  of  attention.  —  Arousing  in- 
terest.—  Use  of  the  blackboard.  —  Drill. —  Steps  of  the  recita- 
tion. —  Preparation.  —  Presentation.  —  Association.  —  Recapitu- 
lation. —  Application. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

Specialization 228 

Recent  tendencies.  —  Need  of  general  culture.  —  Advantages 
of  specialization.  —  Specialization  below  the  high  school.  —  The 
group  plan. —  Specialization  in  the  high  school. —  Different  high- 
school  courses. 


X  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

Duty  of  the  Teacher 241 

To  his  pupils. —  To  the  parents. —  Parents'  meetings. —  To  the 
community.  —  To  the  school  board.  —  To  his  profession.  —  A 
good  preparation.  —  Support  pedagogical  literature.  —  Teachers' 
associations.  —  Professional  etiquette.  —  To  his  successor.  —  To 
himself.  —  His  health.  —  His  growth. 

CHAPTER   XIX. 

The  Mutu.^l  Relations  of  Superintendent,  Principal,  and 

Teacher 261 

The  superintendent.  —  Executive  duties.  —  As  a  supervisor.  — 
His  visiting  schools.  —  His  leadership.  —  Teachers'  meetings. — 
Reports  from  teachers.  - —  Relation  to  parents.  —  Relation  to  chil- 
dren.—  The  principal.  —  The  teachers. 

CHAPTER   XX. 

The  School  Exterior 284 

General  remarks.  —  The  school-grounds.  —  New  grounds. — 
Improvement  of  old  ones.  —  The  buildings.  — Out-buildings. 

CHAPTER   XXI. 

The  School  Interior 295 

Arrangement  of.  —  Size  and  shape  of  schoolrooms.  —  Seating. 
—  Windows,  shades,  etc.  —  The  blackboards.  —  Cloak-rooms.  — 
Heating  and  ventilation.  —  Ventilation  of  old  buildings.  — 
Storeroom. 

APPENDIX. 

Moral  Instruction 311 

Course  in  the  Anderson,  Ind.,  Public  Schools. 


A 

NEW  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


CHAPTER   I. 

.'  "  n  J  :     ' 

THE   PERSONALl'lY    OF   THE  TEACHER. 

"As  the  teacher  is,  so  is  the  school."  The  greatest 
work  that  can  engage  the  thought  and  invite  the  activity 
of  man  is  the  education  of  the  young.  Upon  the  solution 
of  this  problem,  in  its  broadest  sense,  depends  the  future 
welfare  of  the  individual,  the  home,  the  community,  the 
nation,  the  world.  If  man  is  to  reach  the  highest  state  of 
personal  happiness  and  usefulness,  as  well  as  to  contribute 
his  greatest  possible  service  to  mankind,  he  must  be  prop- 
erly educated.  If  the  home  is  to  be  a  "  paradise  on  earth," 
where  husband  and  wife,  parents  and  children,  brothers 
and  sisters,  mutually  help  and  strengthen  one  another,  it 
will  be  because  education,  obtained  somewhere  and  some- 
how, has  laid  the  foundations.  If  the  community  is  to  be 
moral  and  religious;  if  there  is  to  be  a  high  sense  of  intel- 
lectual and  social  responsibility  ;  if  pure  living,  noble  ideals, 
honest  enterprise,  and  the  advancement  of  civilization,  are 
to  be  encouraged  and  fostered,  there  must  be  a  sound  and 
correct  educational  sentiment.  If  the  evils  and  dangers  of 
political  "  bossism  "  and  corrupt  civil  government  are  to 
be  eliminated  ;  if  we  are  to  escape  the  destruction  that  has 
befallen  other  attempts  at  free  government ;  if  our  republic 


2  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

is  to  Stand,  we  must  raise  the  standard  of  intelligence  and 
morality  through  universal  education.  An  absolute  mon- 
archy may  sustain  itself  by  means  of  its  standing  armies, 
but  a  free  government  can  survive  only  when  its  citizens, 
upon  whom  its  stability  rests,  are  intelligent  and  pure. 

The  school-teacher  is  the  "high  priest  of  the  future." 
Upon  him,  more  than  upon  any  one  else,  rests  the  responsi- 
bility of  education.  Hence  .his  is.  the  greatest  work  that 
can  engage  the  attention  of  man. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  .race,  education  was  conducted 
by  the  parents  in  the  home.  What  the  father  did,  the  son 
learned  to  do.  In  the  primitive  life,  when  men  lived  in 
tents,  obtained  food  and  clothing  from  the  chase  or  from 
their  herds,  which  they  drove  from  valley  to  mountain-side 
for  pasture ;  and  where  the  sum  of  knowledge  was  included 
in  ability  to  defend  themselves,  to  care  for  their  flocks,  to 
take  from  Nature's  generous  bounties  what  she  freely 
offered,  the  father  could  easily  impart  to  his  son  all  that  he 
needed  to  know.  To  strike  tent,  to  elude  or  successfully 
to  cope  with  an  enemy,  to  care  for  the  herds,  to  prepare 
their  flesh  for  food,  and  their  skins  for  clothing  and  shelter, 
to  bring  down  game,  constituted  the  education  of  every  boy, 
and  the  father  needed  no  help  in  teaching  his  son.  He 
"  learned  to  do  by  doing,"  a  pedagogical  principle  which 
modern  educators  are  attempting  to  apply;  But  when  the 
world  became  more  populous,  when  division  of  labor  was 
necessary,  when  the  demands  of  civilization  multiplied  so 
that  man  did  not  have  so  much  leisure,  and  when  the  child 
had  to  be  taught  other  things  than  his  father's  occupation, 
teachers  were  needed.  These  were  furnished  for  many 
centuries  from  the  priesthood,  whose  work  was  dominated 
by  the  Church,  and  is  still  in  many  countries. 


THE   PERSONALITY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  3 

The  State  and  Education.  —  As  the  State  more  and 
more  assumes  the  duty  of  providing  education  for  all,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  recognize  teaching  as  an  independent  pro- 
fession, which,  under  the  State,  must  take  upon  itself  the 
responsibility  of  education.  If  the  future  citizen  is  to  be 
patriotic,  loyal,  law-abiding,  progressive,  ambitious,  intelli- 
gent, pure,  moral,  possessed  of  lofty  ideals,  zealous  of  good 
works,  responsive  to  the  demands  of  duty,  conscientious, 
it  will  be  because  of  the  inspiration  he  receives  from  his 
teacher.  Therefore,  to  no  profession,  and  to  no  class  of 
men,  is  committed  so  high  a  mission  as  is  committed  to  the 
school-teacher. 

High  Calling  of  the  Teacher.  —  No  one  should  enter 
upon  this  work  without  an  appreciation  of  its  great  oppor- 
tunity, without  a  sense  of  the  responsibility  involved  as  a 
leader  and  instructor  of  young  children.  Every  teacher 
ought  to  prefer  his  to  every  other  calling,  ought  to  have 
the  spirit  of  Froebel,  who,  in  speaking  of  his  first  experience 
in  the  schoolroom,  said  :  "  It  seemed  as  if  I  had  found  some- 
thing I  had  never  known,  but  always  longed  for,  always 
missed ;  as  if  my  life  had  at  last  discovered  its  native 
element.  I  felt  as  happy  as  the  fish  in  the  water,  the  bird 
in  the  air."  Or  that  of  Pestalozzi,  who  could  not  be  flattered 
by  offers  of  political  preferment,  but  summed  up  his  soul's 
longing  by  the  words,  "  I  want  to  be  a  schoolmaster."  Or  of 
Thomas  Arnold  in  his  work  with  the  boys  of  Rugby  ;  or  of 
Francis  W.  Parker,  who  has  been  described  as  a  statesman, 
a  philosopher,  an  evangelist,  a  soldier,  and  a  martyr.  With 
the  example,  inspiration,  and  spirit  of  such  great  teachers 
before  him,  the  young  man  or  woman  may  well  ask  the 
•question,  "  Do  I  possess  the  qualities  that  one  must  have 


A  A.    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

to  be  a  worthy  teacher  ?  "     No  one  should  enter  upon  the 
profession  of  teaching,  without  first  asking  this  question. 

Qualities  that  the  Teacher  Should  Possess. —  i.  //k 
must  be  genuine,  whole-souled,  hojiest,  manly,  true.  —  I  use 
the  pronoun  in  the  generic  sense  —  a  woman  teacher  must 
possess  these  quahties  as  truly  as  a  man.  If  the  teacher  is 
lacking  in  the  qualities  that  belong  to  genuine  manhood, 
it  will  not  be  long  before  the  many  watchful  eyes  that  are 
constantly  fixed  upon  him  will  discover  that  fact.  Children 
cannot  be  deceived  in  this  respect.  There  may  be  lack  of 
approved  method,  there  may  be  dearth  of  knowledge,  there 
may  even  be  weak  discipline,  but  none  of  these  is  so  fatal 
as  a  lack  of  honest  manliness.  All  other  deficiencies  can 
be  corrected,  but  if  genuine  character  is  lacking  in  a  man, 
he  should  never  seek  to  be  a  school-teacher.  The  fearful 
effects  of  a  teacher  wanting  in  genuine  moral  uprightness, 
who  must  come  into  daily  contact  with  young  lives,  can- 
not be  estimated.  A  manly  teacher  will  lift  his  pupils 
towards  high  ideals  of  manhood.  It  was  the  genuineness 
of  Thomas  Arnold,  rather  than  his  methods  of  instruction, 
that  made  such  a  profound  impression  upon  the  boys  of 
Rugby,  and  sent  them  out  to  be  the  moral  and  political 
leaders  of  England  since  Arnold's  time.  One  hears  little 
about  the  curriculum  or  the  methods  of  instruction  em- 
ployed, but  a  great  deal  about  Thomas  Arnold,  Rugby's 
great  and  beloved  head-master.  Some  one  has  said  :  "  It 
will  be  told  in  after-days  how  there  was  once  a  heaven- 
born  head-master,  by  name  Thomas  Arnold,  who,  ruling  at 
Rugby,  taught  the  boys  to  be  good  Christians,  true  gen- 
tlemen, and  be  merry,  mischievous  boys  still."  "  How  can 
I  hear  what  you  say,  when  what  you  are  is  continually 


THE   PERSONALITY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  ^ 

thundering  in  my  ears?"  says  Emerson.  Mary  Lyon's 
ideal  of  education  found  expression  in  a  consecrated  Chris- 
tian womanhood,  and  it  is  said  that  "  so  completely  did  the 
ideal  of  her  own  life  become  the  ideal  of  their  lives,  that 
most  of  the  girls  went  out  as  Christian  women.  Wherever 
they  went  they  carried  this  spirit.  Wherever  they  taught 
they  set  up  a  new  Mount  Holyoke,  a  Christian  seminary. 
Wherever  they  married  they  set  up  a  Christian  home," 

Well  says  Lowell  that  "the  spirit  of  the  teacher  is 
more  than  his  method,  and  that  person  is  the  most  valu- 
able in  the  schoolroom  who  fills  it  with  sweet  reasonable- 
ness." Felix  Adler  remarks:  "The  personality  of  the 
master  of  the  school  is  the  chief  factor  of  moral  influence 
in  it." 

This  manly  spirit  will  show  itself  also  in  the  teacher's 
attitude  towards  his  colaborers.  It  will  prevent  him  from 
undermining  or  defaming'  others,  from  seeking  to  displace 
them,  from  being  envious  of  their  success.  How  much  the 
teaching  profession  is  in  need  of  the  loyal,  hearty,  sympa- 
thetic co-operation  of  its  members !  It  ought  to  be  im- 
possible to  find  a  teacher  who  will  consent  to  supplant 
another  on  any  terms  or  under  any  circumstances.  Only 
when  a  position  is  vacant,  or  it  is  definitely  decided  that 
it  is  to  become  vacant,  should  a  teacher  allow  himself  to 
be  a  candidate  for  the  place.  This  will  command  the 
respect  of  school  boards  and  of  the  community ;  it  will 
raise  teachers  in  public  esteem  ;  it  will  ultimately  advance 
salaries,  and  it  will  prevent  injustice  being  done  to  worthy 
fellow-workers.  Some  years  ago  a  gentleman  visited  my 
school,  and  in  course  of  conversation  said  to  me :  "  There 
is  a  rumor  abroad  that  3^oa  do  not  intend  to  remain  here 
after  the  close  of    this  year.     Is  that  true?"     I  replied 


6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

that  it  was.  "  Have  you  any  objection  to  my  applying  for 
the  position  ? "  he  asked.  I  informed  him  that  I  had 
none.  This  was  true  courtesy,  and  I  never  forgot  it.  No 
one  possessing  the  genuine,  manly  character  so  essential 
in  one  to  whom  is  committed  such  a  sacred  responsibility 
as  that  of  forming  the  characters  of  young  children  could 
be  guilty  of  impairing  the  usefulness  or  injuring  the  pros- 
pects of  another  engaged  in  the  same  work. 

In  another  chapter  (p.  241),  while  discussing  the  teach- 
er's duty  to  his  profession,  I  shall  show  by  concrete  illus- 
trations how  a  failure  to  live  up  to  this  principle  reacts 
upon  the  one  who  perpetrates  the  wrong,  and  gives  him 
the  just  deserts  of  his  meanness. 

2.  He  imist  possess  patience,  sympathy,  and  love  for  cJiil- 
dren.  —  The  teacher's  work  is  not  a  bed  of  roses  ;  there  are 
trials  many,  discouragements,  difficulties  of  daily  occur- 
rence, and  things  that  disturb  the  equanimity  of  the  most 
patient.  This  work  would  be  intolerable  to  one  lacking 
the  divine  gift  of  patience.  It  is  not  that  the  children  are 
vicious  ;  most  of  them  are  good.  If  they  are  not  good,  it 
is  because  their  past  environment  or  training  has  been 
bad.  But  they  are  mischievous,  restless,  full  of  life,  and 
they  often  iind  it  hard  to  submit  to  the  necessary  require- 
ments of  school  discipline.  Here  is  where  the  necessity 
for  patience  is  manifest.  Even  when  the  children  are 
vicious,  supreme  patience  may  overcome  this  evil  and  win 
them  to  right  conduct.  An  impatient  teacher  only  aggra- 
vates the  evil  and  arouses  a  spirit  of  antagonism  and  rebel- 
lion. Every  teacher  will  do  well  to  study  the  life  of  the 
Great  Teacher,  who,  "when  He  was  reviled,  reviled  not 
again,"  and  who  showed  a  spirit  of  sublimest  patience 
under  the  malicious  treatment  of  His  enemies  such  as  the 


THE    PERSONALITY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  'J 

world  has  elsewhere  never  witnessed.  Even  with  His 
beloved  disciples  how  often  did  He  exercise  infinite 
patience ! 

The  teacher  must  also  possess  love  for  children.  "  I 
hate  children,  and  would  never  teach  a  day  if  I  were  not 
obliged  to,"  said  a  teacher,  when  her  superintendent 
criticised  her  treatment  of  the  pupils.  Such  a  person 
ought  never  to  be  a  teacher.  There  must  be  a  love  for 
childhood,  a  sympathy  with  its  interests,  a  spirit  that  can 
enter  heartily  and  sincerely  into  its  joys  and  sorrows. 
I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  the  teacher  should  "gush" 
over  children, — nothing  ultimately  disgusts  them  more 
than  that,  —  but  a  genuine,  natural  sympathy  that  brings 
heart  in  touch  with  heart.  Possessing  this,  the  teacher 
will  not  only  be  able  to  reach  the  inner  life,  the  best  and 
noblest,  that  which  is  the  character  of  the  child,  but 
through  this  he  will  reach  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the 
other  sides  of  the  child's  development.  This  love  for 
children,  seeking  to  do  them  good,  and  finding  pleasure 
in  their  society,  must  be  innate  and  spontaneous.  The 
person  who  lacks  these  qualities  should  never  attempt  to 
be  a  teach  en 

3,  He  should  possess  a  happy  disposition.  —  I  have  seen 
teachers  whose  forbidding  countenance,  whose  sour  dispo- 
sition, whose  hard  and  rigid  manner,  whose  acerbic  charac- 
teristics, chilled  the  very  atmosphere  around  them,  and 
imbittered  the  life  of  all  who  came  in  contact  with  them. 
Never  enough  sunshine  could  come  through  the  windows 
on  even  the  brightest  days  to  make  their  schoolroom 
cheerful,  and  woe  to  the  unfortunate  pupils  when  the  sky 
was  overclouded  !  Instead  of  sympathy  for  the  sorrows 
of  childhood,  joy  in  its  happiness,  patience  with  the  erring. 


8  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

helpful  cheer  for  those  in  difficulty,  stimulating  encourage- 
ment for  the  discouraged,  there  were  sarcasm,  querulous 
criticism,  fault-finding,  and  bitterness.  What  parent  would 
knowingly  commit  a  Wed  and  loving  child  for  five  hours 
a  day  to  the  care  of  such  a  teacher  .?  Whatever  be  the 
qualities  of  a  teacher,  one  who  lacks  "sunshine  in  the 
soul,"  who  does  not  possess  the  "milk  of  human  kindness," 
should  never  be  allowed  to  teach.  There  are  days  in  the 
schoolroom  that  "try  men's  souls,"  dark,  forbidding, 
cloudy,  heavy,  without  a  gleam  of  sunshine,  when  teachers 
must  bring  to  bear  the  power  to  rise  above  external  con- 
ditions, and  radiate  cheerfulness  from  the  abundance  of 
gladness  and  good-will  in  their  own  hearts. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  common  sense  as  well  as  educa- 
tional philosophy  in  the  attitude  of  the  superintendent  who 
insisted  that  the  qualities  of  disposition  that  make  young 
women  sought  for  as  wives,  the  attractive,  winning,  happy 
charm  about  girls  that  leads  the  opposite  sex  to  seek  them, 
are  the  characteristics  that  he  required  in  his  teachers. 
Hence,  he  said :  "  I  do  not  want  teachers  that  can  never 
get  married."  By  this  he  does  not  mean  that  he  desires 
to  lose  his  teachers  by  marriage,  but  that  he  wants  those 
who  possess  a  happy  disposition.  With  such  an  endow- 
ment, there  is  nothing  in  school-life  that  should  darken  or 
imbitter  the  teacher's  life.  Indeed,  the  atmosphere  of  the 
schoolroom  and  the  contact  with  innocent  young  life 
should  write  benevolence  on  the  brow  and  kindness  in  the 
heart,  so  that  the  teacher's  face  should  grow  lovelier  and 
his  heart  more  tender  as  the  years  go  by.  Such  was  the 
effect  upon  Pestalozzi,  upon  Thomas  Arnold,  upon  Norman 
A,  Calkins,  upon  Dr.  E.  A.  Sheldon,  and  such  will  be  the 
effect  upon  every  teacher  who  carries  a  sunny  disposition 


THE   PERSONALITY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  g 

into  the  schoolroom.  The  very  smile  of  such  a  teacher  is 
a  blessing  and  a  benediction  to  all  who  come  under  his 
influence. 

4.  He  must  be  free  from  any  physical  impediment  that 
would  interfere  zvith  his  usefulness.  —  Every  person  who 
enters  upon  a  course  of  preparation  for  teaching  should 
undergo  a  physical  examination,  to  determine  his  ability  to 
stand  the  arduous  strain  of  the  teacher's  life.  For  teach- 
ing is  arduous,  requiring  good  health  and  a  strong  body. 
Not  that  the  teacher  is  selected  for  brawn  as  in  the  olden 
time,  when  the  large  boys  felt  called  upon  to  challenge 
the  schoolmaster's  physical  strength,  in  order  to  test  his 
fitness  to  keep  the  school,  but  because  he  needs  good 
health  to  enable  him  to  discharge  his  duties  without  worry 
or  weakness.  Physical  health  is  essential,  so  that  there 
may  be  the  cheerfulness,  the  vivacity,  the  fertility  of  re- 
source both  in  method  and  in  discipline,  the  maintenance 
of  interest,  and  the  complete  mastery  of  all  school  details. 
The  teacher  should  possess  reserve  strength  to  rise  above 
the  petty  annoyances  that  are  sure  to  come,  and  to  pre- 
serve a  perfect  equanimity  of  temper  and  manner.  The 
genial  disposition,  which  we  have  already  shown  to  be  es- 
sential, is  hard  to  maintain  when  the  body  is  weak  or  dis- 
eased. Strength  of  body  gives  consciousness  of  power, 
both  in  preserving  order  and  in  imparting  instruction. 

The  State  invests  capital  in  the  training  of  teachers, 
and  therefore  has  a  right  to  expect  a  reasonable  term  of 
service.  More  important  than  this,  the  person  who  invests 
far  more  than  the  State  —  his  capital,  time,  energy  —  has 
a  right  to  expect  a  sufficient  term  of  service  adequately  to 
recompense  him  for  the  outlay  ;  and  if  his  health  is  such 
as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  this,  he  should  be  informed 


TO  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT, 

of  the  fact,  and  advised  to  choose  some  other  vocation. 
It  is  very  sad  for  one  who  has  thus  prepared  himself  for  a 
hfe-work,  perhaps  by  great  sacrifices,  to  find  that  the  ex- 
penditure has  been  in  vain,  because  of  a  breakdown  in 
health.  Therefore  great  care  should  be  taken  by  those  in 
authority  to  ascertain  the  physical  condition  of  all  candi- 
dates for  normal-school  work.  Kindness  is  shown  not 
only  to  them,  but  justice  is  done  to  the  children  who  may 
be  their  pupils  and  whom  the  State  is  bound  to  protect. 

5.  He  must  be  capable  of  tJiinking  a7id speaking cleai'ly  and 
logically.  —  Doubtless  defects  in  this  respect  may  be  largely 
remedied  by  training,  but  there  are  some  persons  so  sadly 
lacking  in  these  qualities  that  no  amount  of  training  can 
overcome  the  fault.  Not  that  a  person  must  be  loqua- 
cious in  order  to  become  a  teacher, — the  work  of  the 
teacher  has  a  tendency  to  make  him  talkative,  — but  one 
who  is  diffident  or  hesitating  in  either  thought,  speech,  or 
action  is  not  likely  to  succeed  in  this  field.  The  power 
to  express  one's  self  accurately  and  clearly  is  vital  to 
the  teacher.  One  must  be  able  not  only  to  see  a  truth 
clearly,  but  also  must  possess  the  power  to  impart  it  to 
others.  Logical  power,  clearness  of  conception,  will  enable 
one  to  grasp  the  essentials  and  make  them  stand  out  vividly 
that  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  seize  and  hold  the  lesson. 
This  power  is  most  important  to  one  who  would  become  a 
teacher. 

6.  He  must  be  an  alt  mist.  —  It  has  been  said  that  "  to 
be  a  successful  teacher  needs  first  of  all  a  heart  yearning 
for  the  good  of  others.  Let  us  consider  one  of  the  methods 
employed  by  the  Great  Teacher,  the  model  of  every  one 
who  would  achieve  success."  The  Word  tells  us  of  Him 
that  "  He  went  about  doing  good."     His  ministry  did  not 


THE    PERSONALITY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  I  i 

shrink  from  most  menial  offices;  and  His  final  sacrifice,  that 
of  his  own  life,  was  sublimely  complete  —  "  He  gave  His 
life  for  others."  It  was  the  noblest  example  of  altruism  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  No  person  should  seek  to  be  a 
teacher  whose  motive  is  selfish.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
vocation  to  invite  a  person  of  such  a  spirit,  but  there  is 
everything  to  invite  one  who  seeks  the  welfare  of  his  fel- 
low-rnen.  No  profession  offers  so  wide  a  field  for  the  prac- 
tice of  true  benevolence,  such  an  opportunity  to  be  a 
blessing  to  mankind,  such  a  scope  for  the  exercise  of  the 
spirit  of  the  Divine  Master,  so  broad  and  fertile  a  means 
for  doing  good,  as  that  of  teaching. 

These  are  the  qualities  that  the  teacher  must  possess, 
and,  possessing  them,  he  will  not  be  lacking  in  the  strong 
personality  that  impresses  itself  forcibly,  effectively,  and 
permanently  upon  the  minds  and  hearts  of  those  whom  he 
teaches.  To  those  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  humble  self- 
sacrifice,  of  sincere  consecration,  of  wide-reaching  benevo- 
lence, of  lofty  patriotism  and  disinterested  altruism,  the 
field  is  open  and  the  invitation  hearty.  Such  teachers  are 
wanted  everywhere;  and  to  such,  there  is  an  abundant  and 
satisfying  reward.  They  are  indeed  to  be  "  the  high  priests 
of  the  future." 

In  the  foregoing,  I  have  sought  to  present  ideal  require- 
ments. In  the  nature  of  the  case,  there  is  a  great  scarcity 
of  teachers  who  reach  the  ideal,  and  therefore  a  great  deal 
of  teaching  must  still  be  done  by  those  of  less  capacity. 
Let  the  standard,  however,  be  high,  and  let  all  teachers 
seek  to  attain  to  the  highest  ideals. 


CHAPTER    II. 

PREPARATION   AND    RESPONSIBILITY   OF  THE  TEACHER. 

In  the  foregoing  chapter  we  have  seen  that  the  teacher 
must  possess  certain  natural  quahties.  The  mere  posses- 
sion of  these  quahties,  however,  does  not  make  a  teacher. 
In  the  sense  that  these  quahties  are  innate,  the  teacher  is 
"bom."  They  are  fundamental,  but  in  addition  to  these 
there  must  be  suitable  training,  and  this  training  is  two- 
fold, (i)  academic,  aiid  {2)  professional. 

Academic  Training.  —  There  must  first  be  a  sound  foun- 
dation of'  general  knowledge.  The  teacher  must  know 
many  subjects  besides  those  that  he  is  to  teach.  Educa- 
tion has  been  defined  as  the  process  of  cancelling  the 
difference  in  knowledge  that  exists  between  two  persons, 
between  teacher  and  taught.  Now,  if  the  difference  is 
slight,  the  learner  has  but  little  to  hope  for ;  while  if  the 
difference  is  great,  the  possibilities  that  await  the  learner 
are  just  so  much  the  greater.  Hence  if  the  school  trustee 
thinks  that  his  neighbor's  daughter,  who  has  merely  com- 
pleted the  district-school  course  and  secured  a  third-grade 
certificate,  knows  enough  to  teach  the  little  children  of  the 
school,  and  will  answer  as  well  as  the  thoroughly  equipped 
teacher,  he  makes  a  fundamental  mistake.  In  the  one 
case  there  is  but  little  difference  between  the  knowledge 
of  the  teacher  and  the  pupils,  while  in  the  other  the  possi- 
bilities   arc    immeasurably    greater,    because    the   teacher 


PREPARATION   AND    RESPONSIBILITY    OF   TEACHER    13 

possesses  so  much  more  to  give.  It  is  a  great  mistake 
to  think  that  "  any  one  will  do  for  little  children."  The 
fact  is,  the  greatest  skill  and  tact  and  knowledge  and 
professional  fitness  are  necessary  in  teaching  young  chil- 
dren, because  of  their  immaturity  and  their  inability  to 
help  themselves.  If  unskilled  teaching  is  to  be  employed 
anywhere,  let  it  be  with  older  children  who  can  think  and 
act  for  themselves,  and  who  do  not  depend  so  much  on 
the  teacher.  The  gravest  danger  as  to  method  lies  in  the 
earliest  years  of  the  school  course,  where  the  children  are 
started  on  their  way  to  an  education,  and  not  in  the  later 
years.  For  this  reason  wise  school  boards  and  superinten- 
dents are  especially  careful  in  the  choice  of  their  primary 
teachers.  They  are  careful  in  regard  to  their  academic 
as  well  as  their  professional  preparation. 

The  least  academic  training  that  the  teacher  should 
possess  is  that  of  the  full  high-school  course  or  its  equiva- 
lent. While  he  may  never  be  called  upon  to  teach  some 
of  the  subjects  he  has  mastered,  they  furnish  a  reserve 
force,  supply  a  fund  to  draw  upon,  give  breadth  of  out- 
look, and  open  up  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole 
matter  of  the  education  of  the  child.  The  teacher  with  a 
broad  academic  training  is  less  likely  to  fall  into  ruts  in 
his  teaching  or  his  habits  of  thought,  A  broader  cul- 
ture than  the  high-school  requirement  is  necessary  for 
teachers  of  the  advanced  grades.  Many  high  schools 
already  demand  that  their  teachers  shall  be  college-bred, 
and  doubtless  this  or  its  equivalent  will  soon  be  a  universal 
requirement.  Thorough  mastery  of  the  academic  knowl- 
edge of  subjects  is  absolutely  essential,  and  no  methods  or 
schoolroom  device  or  superficial  tactics  can  take  its  place. 
More  teachers  fail  from  ignorance  of  the  subject-matter 


14  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

than  from  any  other  cause.  Many  normal  schools  recog- 
nize the  need  of  an  excellent  foundation  of  general  culture 
by  requiring  all  candidates  for  admission  to  possess  a 
training  equal  to  that  of  a  first-class  high  school.^ 

Professional  Training.  —  But  if  teaching  is  a  profession, 
academic  culture  alone  will  not  suffice,  even  though  it  be 
a  college  training,  any  more  than  it  would  suffice  for  en- 
trance to  the  profession  of  law,  medicine,  or  theology. 
There  should  also  be  the  special,  technical  training  in  the 
science  and  art  of  teaching,  else  the  teacher  must  learn 
the  technique  of  his  profession  by  experimentation  in  the 
schoolroom.  This  is  expensive  to  the  community  that 
pays  the  bills,  and  far  more  expensive  and  dangerous  to 
the  pupils  that  are  practised  upon.  As  reasonable  to  put 
a  sick  child  into  the  hands  of  a  young  man  without  any 
medical  training,  on  the  ground  that  he  has  graduated 
from  college,  as  to  put  the  school  into  the  hands  of  a  col- 
lege graduate  without  pedagogical  training.  Each  would 
be  obliged  to  grope  in  the  dark  until  through  experience 
he  had  learned  the  art  of  his  calling,  and  in  every  case  the 
sufferer  is  the  one  whom  the  State  is  bound  to  protect,  — 
the  child.     While  mistakes  may  not  be  sc>  obvious  and  so 

1  See  Fitch's  "Lectures  on  Teachir.s;"  ar.jj  Gordy's  "  Growth  and  De- 
velopment of  the  Normal  School  Idep./'  fov  £.  fiirthei  elaboiation  of  this 
argument. 

1.  A  teacher  cannot  teach  all  he  knows, 

2.  Ample  knowledge  of  a  subject  makes  a  teacher  free  to  encourage 
his  pupils  to  ask  questions. 

3.  Increases  his  power  to  illustrate. 

4.  Enables  hijn  to  distinguish  the  important  from  the  unimportant. 

5.  Insures  his  interest  in  his  subject,  and  thereby  tends  to  develop  inter- 
est in  his  pupils. 

6.  Gives  him  courage  to  say,  "  I  don't  know." 


PREPARATION    AND    RESPONSIBILITY    OF   TEACHER.     I^ 

immediately  dangerous  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other,  the 
evil  is  none  the  less  real. 

The  professional  training  of  the  teacher  should  consist 
of  a  study  of  psychology  and  child  study,  history  of  educa- 
tion, methods  of  teaching,  school  management,  school  law 
and  school  economics,  practice-work,  and  philosophy  of 
education.  With  these  two  sides  of  preparation,  the 
academic  and  the  professional,  the  equipment  of  the  teacher 
is  completed,  and  he  is  prepared  to  go  forth  and  add  to 
these  the  experience  of  the  schoolroom.  This  experience 
should  then  be  intelligently  directed,  and  the  errors  com- 
mitted will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  At  least  all  has 
been  done  for  the  young  teacher  that  the  professional 
school  can  do,  and  it  now  rests  with  himself  to  prove  his 
fitness  by  his  works.  If  he  makes  mistakes,  as  doubtless 
he  will,  they  will  be  no  more  frequent  than  those  of  the 
novice  in  any  other  profession.  The  State  in  its  training, 
and  the  school  board  in  its  selection  of  teachers  so  pre- 
pared, have  guarded  well  the  doors  of  entrance  to  this 
vocation.  Thus  the  interests  of  the  pupils  have  been  pro- 
tected, and  it  may  be  confidently  expected  that  the  mis- 
takes made  will  be  few. 

Responsibility  of  the  Teacher.  —  No  one  should  enter 
lightly  upon  the  work  of  teaching.  Motives  should  be 
carefully  analyzed,  the  responsibility  weighed,  and  a  deci- 
sion arrived  at  only  after  a  full  understanding  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  work  and  belief  that  the  requisite  qualities 
are  possessed.  While  it  is  a  great  responsibility,  it  is  also 
a  great  opportunity.  I  would  have  every  person  who 
enters  upon  the  life  of  a  teacher  feel  that  to  him  it  is  the 
noblest  of  all  human  endeavors,  the  greatest  of  all  privi- 


1 6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

leges,  the  most  sacred  duty  that  he  can  undertake.  No 
one  need  ever  apologize  for  being  a  school-teacher,  and 
one  who  is  disposed  to  do  so  had  better  seek  some  other 
means  of  gaining  a  livelihood.  Nor  should  the  community 
despise  the  teacher.  Surely  parents  who  think  well 
enough  of  the  character  and  attainments  of  a  person  to 
commit  their  children  to  his  care,  closest  intimacy,  and 
personal  contact  for  daily  instruction,  should  not  refuse 
him  the  intimacy  of  their  social  lives  and  their  homes 
merely  because  he  is  a  school-teacher.  The  very  fact  that 
he  is  the  teacher  of  their  children  should  open  their  homes 
and  their  hearts  to  him,  and  if  he  is  not  worthy  of  this,  he 
is  unworthy  to  occupy  such  a  responsible  position.  Every 
teacher  should  be  trained  in  the  refinements  of  polite  life 
as  well  as  in  the  culture  that  marks  the  gentleman  or  the 
lady.  Possessing  these  qualities,  there  is  no  just  reason 
for  his  exclusion  from  the  society  of  the  most  refined.  ] 
do  not  mean  that  the  teacher  should  be  a  so-callec^ 
"society"  man  ;  if  there  is  an  excuse  for  anybody  occupy- 
ing such  a  position,  surely  there  is  none  for  the  teacher. 
But  he  should  possess  the  ease,  the  genuine  politeness, 
the  true  courtesy,  which  fit  him  to  associate  with  the  best 
in  the  community,  and  the  best  in  the  community  should 
open  their  doors  to  him  without  reserve,  as  they  would  to 
persons  in  other  professions.  And  so,  glorying  in  his 
work,  let  every  teacher  accept  the  full  responsibility  of  his 
office,  and  seek  to  discharge  its  duties  with  faithfulness 
and  efficiency. 

But  what  are  the  responsibilities  that  fall  upon  the 
teacher  ? 

I.  T/ie  resp07isibility  of  personal  example.  —  No  one  can 
measure  the  awful  consequences  of  an  evil  example  on  the 


PREPARATION   AND    RESPONSIBILITY   OF   TEACHER. 


^7 


part  of  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  of  pure 
life,  clean  habits,  noble  character,  is  the  most  potent,  the 
most  influential,  the  most  wholesome,  the  most  powerful, 
agency  for  good  in  the  community.  The  Christian  minis- 
ter would  stand  next  in  influencing  the  lives  of  children  ; 
but  the  teacher  has  the  advantage  of  him  in  the  closer 
contact  with  children,  in  the  hours  they  are  under  his  care, 
in  the  greater  number  that  are  in  his  charge.  The  minis- 
ter's parish  is  largely  limited  to  the  attendants  of  his  own 
church,  while  the  teacher's  includes  all  children  of  every 
church  and  of  no  church.  Personal  example  is  more  effec- 
tive than  sermons  or  lectures,  and  vain  is  the  instruction 
in  morals  if  it  is  not  supplemented  by  the  life  of  the 
teacher.  The  most  potent  factor  in  teaching  morals  in 
our  schools  is  the  personality  of  the  great  body  of  high- 
minded,  conscientious,  pure-lived,  Christian  teachers. 
Whatever  system  of  ethical  training  may  be  introduced 
in  our  school  courses,  nothing  can  relieve  the  teacher  from 
his  personal  moral  responsibility.  Nor  does  the  influence 
of  the  teacher  always  cease  with  morals.  Without  a  parti- 
cle of  sectarian  instruction,  without  any  direct  allusion  to 
religious  life  and  practice,  by  his  own  belief  in  sacred 
things,  by  his  spirit  of  reverence  for  God,  by  his  silent 
attitude  towards  religion  while  in  the  school,  and  his  active 
participation  in  its  duties  out  of  school,  the  teacher  be- 
comes a  mighty  force  for  spiritual  teaching.  I  have 
known  teachers  whose  lives  were  such  that  no  other  man 
in  the  community  exercised  so  powerful  and  direct  an  in- 
fluence for  religion  as  they.  And  there  was  not  a  parent 
of  whatever  creed  that  did  not  feel  that  the  education  of 
his  children  was  in  safe  hands. 

The  teacher  cannot  conceal  his  true  character  from  the 


1 8  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

many  searching  eyes  and  inquisitive  minds  that  are  con- 
stantly studying  him.  "  Out  of  the  abundance  of  the 
heart  the  mouth  speaketh ; "  and  if  the  heart  is  overflow- 
ing with  good-will  or  cankered  with  malice,  it  will  not  be 
long  before  the  children  discover  the  truth.  When  the 
teacher  has  secured  the  confidence  of  his  pupils,  his  code 
of  morals  will  become  their  code,  his  ideas  of  life  will  be- 
come their  ideas.  I  knew  a  young  principal  whose  per- 
sonality was  so  strong  that  his  hold  upon  his  pupils,  and 
through  them  upon  the  community,  became  so  great  that 
for  years  he  was  the  natural  leader  of  every  movement 
looking  to  the  upbuilding  of  the  village.  It  was  said  of 
him,  "  The  young  people  of  H base  their  ethical  con- 
ceptions upon  what  Mr.  B.  thinks  is  right."  When  a 
teacher  wins  such  a  place,  a  most  solemn  responsibility 
rests  upon  him  to  set  a  right  example,  live  a  right  life, 
and  think  right  thoughts. 

2.  Responsibility  for  the  physical  ^veil-being  of  his 
pupils.  —  This  question  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Duty  of  the  Teacher  "  (p.  241).  It  is  sufficient  here  to 
remark  that  for  several  hours  a  day  the  child  is  committed 
to  the  care  of  the  teacher,  who  must  not  forget  that  proper 
education  includes  also  the  physical  well-being  of  his 
charges.  The  teacher  is  responsible  for  the  hygienic  con- 
ditions of  the  schoolroom, —  the  maintenance  of  good  venti- 
lation, correct  temperature,  right  seating,  guarding  against 
draughts  and  exposure,  watchfulness  as  to  the  condition  of 
the  clothing  in  wet  weather,  and  general  oversight  of  the 
health.  No  system  of  ventilation  has  been  devised  that 
eliminates  the  personal  attention  of  the  teacher.  Only 
when  the  children  are  in  perfect  health  can  school  duties 
be  fully  performed,  and  to  secure  this,  systematic  physical 


PREPARATION   AND    RESPONSIBILITY   OF   TEACHER. 


19 


training  should  be  a  part  of  the  school  course.  This  training 
will  tend  to  correct  deformities  of  the  body,  shambling  gait, 
awkwardness  of  movement,  and  to  bring  all  parts  of  the 
body  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  will,  which  Rosen- 
kranz  defines  as  the  object  of  physical  culture. 

3.  Responsibility  for  tJie  'moral  training  of  his  pu- 
pils. —  In  his  eagerness  to  further  the  intellectual  life  of 
the  child,  the  teacher  must  not  neglect  his  moral  develop- 
ment. Teachers  are  sometimes  so  bound  to  their  daily 
routine,  to  the  carrying  out  of  all  the  program,  that  they 
will  not  take  time  to  ferret  out  and  show  the  enormity  of  a 
lie.  There  are  times  when  the  supreme  duty  of  the  teacher 
is  to  stop  all  other  work  and  give  a  lesson  in  morals.  A 
pedantic  adherence  to  the  daily  routine  when  a  gross  evil 
has  been  committed  has  a  tendency  to  create  in  the  minds 
of  the  children  indifference  to  moral  questions.  They  are 
the  most  vital  and  important  element  of  all  school  work, 
and  upon  this  point  there  should  be  no  doubt  left  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  While  the  teacher  alone  is  not  respon- 
sible for  the  moral  training  of  the  children, — the  home, 
the  community,  the  State,  the  Church,  have  their  respect- 
ive parts  to  perform,  —  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  with 
many  children  the  school  is  the  most  potent  factor  in 
establishing  moral  habits  and  moral  ideals.^  The  other 
elements  in  the  child's  education  may  be  vicious  or  ineffect- 
ive ;  therefore  the  school,  with  its  daily,  direct,  intelligent, 
and  sympathetic  contact,  must  undertake  to  supply  the 
deficiencies  in  other  agencies,  and  establish  ethical  prin- 
ciples and  habits  in  the  child.  Many  a  child  is  saved  from 
a  life  of  degradation  through  the  direct  influence  of  a  con- 

1  See  "Foundations  of    Education,"    p.   172,  Chapter  on    "Who    are 
responsible  for  the  education  of  the  child  ?  " 


20  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

secrated  teacher  who   appreciates    his  opportunity  in  the 
moral  work  of  the  schoolroom.^ 

4.  Responsibility  for  the  intellectttal  grozuth  of  the 
pupils.  —  The  teacher  is  an  educational  expert,  and  as  such 
should  know  better  than  any  one  else  the  kind  of  mental 
food  that  the  children  need.  Hence  the  course  of  study, 
the  arrangement  of  the  daily  program,  the  classification, 
the  amount  of  work  given  whether  in  school  or  at  home, 
should  be  left  to  him.  Through  his  professional  knowl- 
edge, his  interest  in  his  work  and  his  power  to  interest 
children,  his  methods  of  instruction,  his  comprehensive 
view  of  the  whole  field  of  education,  he  is  fitted  to  advise 
as  well  as  to  teach  his  pupils.  He  should  be  able  to  stimu- 
late them  to  intellectual  activity,  and  awaken  a  zeal  for 
knowledge.  School  exercises  must  not  be  merely  a  per- 
functory following  of  the  daily  routine  of  lessons,  the  call- 
ing of  the  school  on  time,  the  passing  and  teaching  of  the 
classes,  and  the  dismissal  at  the  close  of  the  day.  They 
must  be  full  of  intellectual  vitality,  create  a  hunger  for 
knowledge,  and  foster  an  eager  longing  for  the  truth. 
The  teacher  is  the  central  figure  in  bringing  about  such 
ideal  conditions,  and  if  they  are  not  realized  he  should  be 
held  accountable.  Examinations,  monthly  reports,  promo- 
tions, may  be  used  to  inform  parents  of  the  progress  of 
their  children  and  the  efficiency  of  the  school,  but  the 
best  and  final  test  is  the  interest  manifested  by  the  pupils 
in  their  studies  and  their  school. 

5.  General  responsibility.  —  Besides  these  phases  of 
specific  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  he  owes 
general   responsibility   to    the    community,   to  the    school 

1  The  reader  is  referred  for  further  treatment  of  this  subject  to  the 
chapter  on  "  Morals  of  the  School,"  p.  — 138. 


PREPARATION    AND    RESPONSIBILITY    OF    TEACHER.     21 

board,  to  his  profession,  and  to  himself.  Each  of  these  is 
discussed  in  the  following  chapter,  to  which  reference  is 
here  made. 

Rewards  of  the  Teacher.  —  With  all  of  these  natural  and 
acquired  attainments,  and  with  the  great  responsibilities  of 
the  office,  it  is  no  light  matter  to  become  a  school-teacher. 
When  one  thinks  of  the  hard  work,  the  self-sacrifice,  the 
consecration,  one  may  seriously  ask,  "Does  it  pay.?"  It 
certainly  does  for  those  who  possess  the  qualifications  which 
I  have  tried  to  show  to  be  essential.  There  are  rich  and 
certain  rewards  which  in  the  end  fully  compensate  for 
the  investment.     Let  us  look  at  these  rewards. 

I.  TJie  salary.  —  Surely,  if  ever  it  is  true  that  "the 
laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire,"  it  is  true  with  the  teacher. 
In  general  his  is  the  poorest  paid  of  any  vocation  requiring 
so  thorough  a  preparation,  that  is  so  exacting  in  its  de- 
mands, so  exhausting  of  strength,  so  wearing  upon  the 
vitality,  so  isolating  from  the  ordinary  opportunities  of 
accumulating  a  competence.  The  teacher's  life  and  duties 
unfit  him  for  the  sharp  competition  of  business,  and  his 
exclusion  from  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  men  prevents  him 
from  knowing  how  to  invest  wisely  his  hard-earned  and 
slowly  accumulated  savings.  The  average  salary  of  men 
teachers  throughout  the  land  is  less  than  fifty  dollars  a 
month,  and  that  of  women  less  than  forty  dollars.  But 
his  salary  is  a  just  reward,  and  no  teacher  need  con- 
sider himself  mercenary  because  he  looks  forward  with 
pleasure  to  pay-day.  I  have  shown  elsewhere  (p.  28)  that 
in  making  the  contract  it  is  one's  duty  to  secure  the  best 
possible  terms,  but  when  once  engaged  it  is  incumh^ 
upon  him  to  teach  according  to  his  fullest  ability,  ar.(' 


22  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

according  to  the  amount  received.  The  teacher  is  entitled 
to  the  necessities,  and  at  least  some  of  the  comforts,  of  life, 
and  therefore  his  salary  is  a  just  reward. 

2.  Improvement  of  his  pupils  a  reivard.  —  It  is  a  great 
joy  to  see  children  grow,  to  witness  their  development  in 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  beauty.  A  girl  in  a  board- 
ing-school had  recently  undergone  an  operation  which  left 
her  right  arm  practically  helpless.  She  was  put  under  the 
care  of  an  intelligent  teacher  of  physical  culture,  and  after 
three  months  of  work  I  was  called  to  witness  the  improve- 
ment that  had  been  made.  She  was  able  to  carry  her 
arm  entirely  over  her  head,  having  regained  almost  natural 
control  of  it.  I  could  scarcely  keep  back  the  tears  of  glad- 
ness as  I  said  to  her,  "  Delia,  does  your  father  know  of 
this  1 "  "  No,"  she  said,  "  I  have  kept  this  as  a  surprise  for 
him  when  I  go  home  for  Christmas  vacation."  "  You  could 
not  bring  him  greater  happiness  than  this,"  said  I.  Surely 
this  remarkable  result  could  not  fail  to  bring  joy  to  the 
teacher  who  had  rescued  this  young  life  from  a  sad  de- 
formity, —  a  joy  which  later  years  could  never  efface. 
Like  opportunities  come  to  every  observant  teacher  —  the 
straightening  of  a  deformed  body,  the  securing  of  glasses 
for  defective  eyes,  the  correction  of  some  weakness  — 
whereby  a  child  may  be  relieved  from  a  life-burden,  and 
in  after-years  he  may  rise  up  to  call  his  teacher  blessed. 

Then  the  joy  of  witnessing  intellectual  growth,  in 
joining  in  the  triumph  of  the  child  who  has  mastered 
a  problem  or  gained  a  victory !  It  is  keenest  delight  to 
the  teacher  to  find  that  his  pupils  can  do  to-day  what  they 
could  not  do  yesterday,  to  see  them  grow  and  expand 
under  his  magic  touch.  Still  further,  through  his  kindly 
encouragement  and  example  the  quick-tempered  lad  gains 


PREPARATION   AND    RESPONSIBILITY   OF   TEACHER. 


23 


self-control ;  the  selfish  becomes  unselfish ;  the  vulgar, 
refined  ;  the  hateful,  loving  ;  the  lazy,  diligent ;  the  violent, 
gentle  ;  the  false,  true ;  the  insubordinate,  obedient.  Thus 
in  the  very  life  of  the  school  the  teacher  is  daily  reaping 
rich  rewards  for  his  labor  of  love.  These  are  the  bright 
spots  in  the  life  of  the  teacher,  and  they  perhaps  more 
than  anything  else  make  it  impossible  for  him  to  give  up 
this  work  for  any  other  employment,  when  once  he  has 
entered  upon  it. 

3.  Success  of  his  pupils  in  life  a  reward.  —  "Do  you 
know  Mr.  E. .-' "  asked  a  successful  business  man  and  lead- 
ing citizen.  "  Yes,  I  know  him  ;  but  why  ?  "  I  inquired. 
"Well,  he  was  my  old  teacher,"  said  he,  "and  I  owe  all 
I  am  to  him."  I  took  occasion  to  tell  Mr.  E.  of  this  con- 
versation not  long  after,  and  as  tears  filled  his  eyes,  he 
said,  "  Did  he  tell  you  that .?  Then  I  have  not  hved  in 
vain."  Alexander  the  Great  loved  and  revered  his  old 
teacher,  Aristotle,  as  much  as  his  own  father,  and  for 
many  years  was  guided  by  the  precepts  which  his  revered 
master  had  taught  him.  One  of  the  greatest  satisfactions 
that  can  come  to  an  old  teacher  is  to  note  the  prosperity 
of  his  former  pupils,  some  far  more  successful  perhaps 
than  he,  and  to  be  conscious  that  in  some  measure  he  has 
contributed  to  their  success.  "These  are  my  boys,"  he 
proudly  says,  and  justly  may  he  claim  them  as  his.  I 
once  met  an  old  German  schoolmaster  who  had  passed  his 
eightieth  birthday,  and  had  retired  on  a  pension  to  spend 
the  remainder  of  his  days  among  his  people,  three  genera- 
tions of  whom  he  had  taught.  Almost  every  person  living 
in  the  village  had  been  in  his  school,  and  it  was  delightful 
to  witness  the  respect  and  affection  with  which  he  was 
everywhere    greeted.      "Herr    Cantor    Grossmann "    was 


24  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

welcome  at  every  gathering,  and  his  advice  vvas  still 
sought  by  young  and  old  aUke.  Thus  in  the  ripeness  of 
his  declining  years  he  lived  among  his  "  children  "  until  he 
entered  upon  his  greater  reward.  Rich  memories  of 
bygone  days,  of  lives  inspired,  of  encouragement  given, 
of  ambitions  awakened,  which  have  found  fruition  in  the 
noble  lives  of  men  and  women,  are  surely  a  great  reward  to 
the  teacher  when  the  feebleness  of  old  age  creeps  upon 
him.  Honorable  and  just  is  that  community  that  shows 
its  appreciation  of  such  men  and  women  by  allowing  no 
anxious  thought  to  disturb  the  last  years  of  these  servants 
and  benefactors. 

4.  Reward  in  consciousness  of  Jiaving  done  good.  —  The 
noblest  reward  of  all  is  the  sublime  consciousness  in  the 
teacher's  own  soul  that  he  has  done  his  duty  and  that  he 
has  been  a  blessing  to  his  fellow-men.  Greater  than  the 
external  evidences  of  success  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  life, 
is  this  inner  consciousness.  But  little  of  this  world's  goods 
may  have  been  accumulated,  there  may  even  be  no  striking 
example  of  greatness  among  those  he  has  taught,  but  if 
duty  has  been  done,  no  matter  if  in  the  humblest  of  stations, 
there  comes  to  the  faithful  teacher  satisfaction  like  that 
of  the  woman  who  poured  ointment  upon  the  Saviour's 
head,  and  which  won  for  her  the  highest  approbation  of  the 
Master  in  the  w^ords,  "  She  hath  wrought  a  good  work," 


CHAPTER   III. 

PREPARATIONS   BEFORE   OPENING   SCHOOL. 

There  are  certain  preliminary  matters  that  should  be 
attended  to  before  the  opening  day.  The  wise  farmer 
before  he  begins  harvesting  examines  his  machines,  sharpens 
his  tools,  puts  his  barns  in  order.  The  builder  secures  his 
material,  engages  his  men,  gets  the  necessary  implements 
ready  before  the  time  of  breaking  ground.  So  the  teacher 
should  anticipate  the  opening  of  school  by  making  all  pos- 
sible preparations.  Let  us  study  these  preliminary  pro- 
visions. 

I.  Securing  a  Position.  —  Having  secured  his  license  to 
teach,  the  young  candidate  is  anxious  about  securing  a 
position.     There  are  various  ways  of  doing  this,  as  follows : 

By  corresponderice.  —  If  the  position  sought  is  some  dis- 
tance away,  this  may  be  the  practicable  method  of  approach. 
It  is  highly  important  to  find  out,  if  possible,  the  proper 
person  to  address.  In  towns,  if  the  conditions  are  ideal, 
the  proper  person  is  the  superintendent  of  schools.  The 
modern  tendency  is  more  and  more  to  recognize  the  school 
superintendent  as  an  educational  expert  upon  whom  the 
duty  of  nominating  teachers  rests.  Associated  with  him, 
there  is  usually  a  committee  on  teachers.  If  the  candidate 
is  obliged  to  address  a  letter  somewhat  at  random,  it  might 
be  sent  either  to  the  superintendent  or  to  the  chairman  of 
the  teachers'  committee. 

25 


26  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

In  country  districts,  the  clerk  of  the  board  of  education 
is  usually  the  proper  person  to  address.  County  superin- 
tendents are  often  familiar  with  vacancies,  the  trustees 
being  quite  likely  to  call  upon  them  to  recommend  teachers. 
The  chance  of  receiving  attention  is  materially  increased  if 
one  applies  to  the  right  person  ;  hence,  great  pains  should 
be  taken  to  obtain  this  knowledge. 

The  letter.  —  The  letter  of  application  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance.  First  of  all,  it  should  be  in  good  Eng- 
lish. It  is  surprising  how  often  applicants  for  positions 
lose  sight  of  this,  and  many  hopes  are  dashed  to  the 
ground  because  of  a  misspelled  word,  a  false  construction, 
or  some  other  error  in  the  use  of  the  mother-tongue.  The 
carelessness  of  teachers  on  this  point  is  woful,  and,  I  do  not 
need  to  add,  inexcusable.  A  president  of  a  school  board 
once  handed  me  the  letters  of  acceptance  of  twenty-five 
teachers  who  had  been  invited  to  take  positions  in  the 
schools  for  the  next  year.  Most  of  them  were  old  teachers 
who  were  continued  from  the  previous  year.  The  letters 
were  not  selected  ;  they  were  the  replies  of  the  entire  force 
of  teachers  in  the  town.  There  was  not  a  single  letter 
that  was  free  from  error  in  English,  though  the  writers 
were  intelligent  and  successful  teachers.  They  had  simply 
been  careless.  While  such  carelessness  did  not  prove 
fatal  to  their  chances  in  this  case,  the  letters  being  accept- 
ances, it  would  have  been  fatal  had  they  been  strangers 
and  had  the  letters  been  applications.  If,  in  so  important 
a  matter  as  a  communication  seeking  employment,  the 
apphcant  shows  a  lack  of  the  habit  of  using  good  English, 
the  school  board  may  justly  hesitate  to  put  such  a  person 
in  charge  of  the  training  of  their  children. 

In  the  next  place,  the  letter  should  be  concise.     School 


PREPARATIONS    BEFORE    OPENING    SCHOOL.  ay 

boards  receive  a  great  many  communications  from  candi- 
dates, and  they  do  not  like  long  letters.  If  they  need  a 
teacher,  and  are  attracted  by  an  applicant  so  much  as  to 
open  correspondence,  a  fuller  statement  of  qualifications 
would  be  proper.  The  object  of  the  first  letter  is  to  gain 
attention  and  awaken  interest,  and  if  this  succeeds,  the 
board  will  listen  to  a  longer  communication.  The  first 
letter  should  contain  (i)  a  formal  application,  expressing 
choice  of  work  with  such  latitude  as  would  be  considered  ; 

(2)  a  statement  of  qualifications,  grade  of  license,  school 
graduated    from,  and  amount  of    experience  in  teaching ; 

(3)  references,  including  copies  of  recommendations  ;  and 

(4)  a  postage  stamp  for  reply.  In  general,  this  is  all  that 
the  first  letter  should  contain,  and  it  should  be  neatly  writ- 
ten, carefully  expressed,  and  to  the  point. 

Personal  applicatioti.  —  If  possible,  a  personal  visit  to 
the  superintendent  or  board  of  education  is  far  better  than 
correspondence.  Many  boards  like  to  see  the  candidate 
face  to  face  before  engaging  him.  Both  parties  can  form 
a  far  better  estimate  of  the  desirability  of  a  contract,  and 
the  needs  of  the  school  can  be  discussed.  If  a  teacher  is 
unsuited  to  a  position,  it  is  better  that  this  be  discovered 
before  an  arrangement  is  completed,  —  far  better  for  him 
as  well  as  for  the  school. 

Teachers'  bureaus.  —  A  third  method  of  securing  a 
position  is  by  means  of  an  institution  that  has  become 
very  useful  in  recent  years,  namely,  the  teachers'  bureau. 
These  bureaus  usually  charge  a  nominal  sum  as  registra- 
tion fee,  and  five  per  cent  of  the  first  year's  salary  when  a 
position  is  secured  through  them.  They  have  opportunities 
of  knowing  of  vacancies,  and  often  serve  as  a  medium  be- 
tween school  boards  and  teachers  whereby  both  are  served. 


28  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

TJie  co7itract.  —  After  an  engagement  has  been  effected, 
there  should  be  a  written  contract  between  the  parties. 
It  is  the  teacher's  right  and  duty  to  secure  as  good  a 
salary  as  possible,  but  when  an  agreement  has  been  made 
no  offer  of  a  better  position  should  tempt  him  to  break  his 
contract  unless  with  the  consent  of  the  other  contracting 
party.  It  is  better  to  suffer  temporary  pecuniary  loss  than 
to  dishonor  the  teachers'  vocation  by  failure  to  keep  one's 
agreement.  While,  as  we  have  said,  it  is  the  teacher's 
duty  to  secure  the  best  possible  salary,  when  he  enters 
upon  his  labors  the  amount  of  salary  must  not  irJluence 
the  quality  of  his  work  or  his  zeal  in  its  performance.  He 
must  do  his  best  regardless  of  salary ;  he  must  give  his 
whole  life,  his  whole  strength,  his  best  effort.  There  is 
good  business  philosophy  in  this,  as  well  as  moral  obli- 
gation, for  he  who  seeks  to  earn  his  salary  merely  is 
overpaid,  however  small  that  salary  is  ;  and  he  who  proves 
himself  worth  more  than  he  is  receiving  will  ultimately 
secure  recognition  by  adv^anced  salary.  This  is  true  of  all 
occupations,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  lessons  to 
be  instilled  into  American  life. 

2.  Entering  the  Field.  — When  should  the  teacher  be 
on  the  ground,  and  what  are  the  preliminary  steps  to  be 
taken  }  In  discussing  this  question,  I  am  thinking  partic- 
ularly of  the  country  teacher  upon  whom  the  whole  respon- 
sibility rests,  rather  than  of  one  who  takes  a  subordinate 
position  under  a  principal.  The  latter  will  not  have  the 
chief  responsibility,  while  the  former  must  attend  to  all 
preliminaries  himself.  The  teacher  should  go  to  a  new 
district  two  or  three  days  before  school  opens.  A  longer 
time  than  this  is  unnecessary  if  not  inadvisable.     A  suit- 


PREPARATIONS  BEFORE  OPENING  SCHOOL.   29 

able  boarding-place  should  be  selected,  not  too  near  the 
school,  so  that  there  may  be  the  incentive  for  walking, 
and  so  that  when  school  work  is  over  he  may  get  away 
from  its  atmosphere.  Outside  of  school,  the  teacher 
should  lay  aside  its  responsibilities  and  cares  so  as  to  be 
fresh  for  the  duties  of  each  day,  and  so  as  to  escape  the 
pedantic  character  to  v/hich  we  have  already  alluded 
(see  p.  16). 

A  visit  should  be  paid  to  the  district  clerk  or  official 
who  holds  the  keys  of  the  schoolhouse,  preserves  the 
school  register  and  other  materials  that  are  needed,  and 
these  secured.  The  old  register  should  be  studied  in 
order  to  become  familiar  with  the  names  of  children,  es- 
pecially those  of  peculiar  pronunciation.  The  daily  pro- 
gram of  the  preceding  term  should  be  secured,  or,  if  this 
is  impossible,  a  tentative  one  prepared  for  the  first  few 
days'  use.  Then  the  schoolhouse  should  be  visited  to  see 
that  it  has  been  properly  cleaned,  to  find  if  repairs  are 
necessary,  to  note  if  the  needed  materials,  books,  etc.,  are 
at  hand,  and  to  study  the  schoolroom.  If  the  cleaning 
and  repairs  have  not  been  attended  to,  the  school  board 
should  be  notified  at  once  ;  and  if  the  seating  is  improper, 
attention  should  be  called  to  it,  even  though  it  may  not 
be  possible  to  have  a  change  made  at  once.  It  will  pre- 
pare the  way  for  future  presentation  of  the  hygienic  needs 
of  the  school,  and  assist  in  securing  the  changes  desired. 
I  once  visited  a  school  in  charge  of  an  intelligent  principal 
and  eight  assistants.  The  pupils  of  the  grammar  depart- 
ment sat  in  a  large  room  for  study,  while  the  classes  re- 
cited in  small  recitation-rooms.  The  study-room  was 
about  40  feet  by  80  feet,  with  ceiling  not  over  ten  feet 
high.     The  windows  were  all  located  at  one  end  of  the 


30 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT, 


room  and  about  half-way  down  one  side,  thus  leaving  two  and 
a  half  sides  of  the  room  with  no  means  of  admitting  light. 
And  yet  the  seats  were  arranged  so  as  to  face  towards 
the  dark  end  of  the  room.  Thus  the  two  hundred  chil- 
dren were  seated  with  their  backs  towards  what  httle  light 
the  low-ceilinged,  scantily  lighted  room  possessed !  I 
suggested  to  the  principal  that  if  the  seats  were  faced  the 
other  way  it  would  be  a  great  improvement,  even  though 
fearfully  bad  at  best.  Although  it  was  a  bright,  sunshiny 
day,  it  was  so  dark  in  parts  of  the  room  that  one  could 
scarcely  read  print.  And  yet  for  five  years  this  man  had 
allowed  this  state  of  things  to  exist  without  even  a  pro- 
test to  his  school  board,  "It  is  of  no  use,"  said  he,  "they 
will  do  nothing."  I  do  not  believe  that  a  school  board  can 
be  found  in  America  that  would  refuse  to  make  a  change 
involving  so  little  expense  and  of  so  great  importance  as 
this,  if  the  case  were  earnestly,  wisely,  persistently  laid 
before  them.  At  least  the  teacher  must  do  his  part  and 
thus  absolve  himself  from  the  responsibility  of  evils  result- 
ing from  such  neglect.  Thus  fortified,  and  possessed  with 
a  fixed  purpose  of  securing  right  conditions,  while  con- 
scientiously determined  to  have  no  part  in  subjecting  little 
children  to  these  evils,  the  teacher  will  rarely  find  a  school 
board  that  will  not  comply  with  reasonable  requirements. 
There  are  plenty  of  schools  where  there  is  a  woful  lack  of 
proper  hygienic  arrangements,  and  generally  if  they  are 
to  be  corrected,  the  teacher  must  take  the  initiative.  For 
this  reason  he  should  begin  at  once  with  discretion  and 
wisdom.  His  attitude  must  not  be  that  of  a  fault-finder, 
but  of  one  who  is  preparing  to  do  the  community  the 
greatest  possible  good,  and  who  knows  the  means  whereby 
that  is  to  be  accompHshed. 


PREPARATIONS    BEFORE    OPENING    SCHOOL.         31 

He  should  examine  the  school  property  with  the  deter- 
mination to  accept  full  responsibility  for  its  preservation, 
but  not  to  be  held  accountable  for  damage  previously  done. 
Maps,  text-books,  reference  books,  erasers,  and  other  ap- 
paratus should  be  examined,  and  where  the  supply  needs 
replenishing  attention  called  to  that  fact,  so  that  there 
may  be  no  delay  in  instituting  full-pressure  work  when  the 
school  opens.  A  careful  study  of  the  schoolroom  should 
be  made,  so  that  the  best  way  of  manipulating  the  school- 
room movements  may  be  employed. 

Having  attended  to  these  matters,  I  think  the  teacher 
may  quietly  enjoy  a  Sabbath's  rest,  and  be  prepared  to 
enter  upon  the  Monday  morning  duties  with  serene  con- 
fidence and  expectation  of  success,  A  caution  may  here 
be  in  place.  It  is  not  well  that  the  teacher  should  listen 
to  gossip  about  this  boy  or  that  girl.  If  Tom  Jones  has 
been  a  bad  boy  under  a  previous  teacher,  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  he  is  going  to  be  a  bad  boy  under  the  new 
one.  It  may  be  that  Tom  has  resolved  to  turn  over  a 
new  leaf.  If  so,  it  will  not  help  matters  if  he  finds  out 
that  the  new  teacher  has  heard  all  about  him,  and  is,  per- 
haps, already  prejudiced  against  him.  The  teacher  should 
be  able  to  go  before  his  pupils  the  first  day  and  say  with 
perfect  truthfulness  and  frankness  :  "  I  know  absolutely 
nothing  against  a  single  boy  or  girl  here,  and  do  not  want 
to  believe  that  a.iy  of  you  are  bad.  No  matter  what  the 
past  has  been,  I  want  you  all  to  be  good  from  now  on." 
This  gives  every  one  a  chance  to  form  good  resolutions, 
and  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so  and  helped 
to  keep  them.  Believing  a  child  to  be  bad,  and  treating  him 
as  if  he  were  bad,  will  often  make  him  bad.  Believing 
him  to  be  good  will  often  lead  him  to  seek  to  justify  your 


0  2  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT,  ■ 

faith  in  him.  It  is  better  to  make  a  mistake  and  think  a 
child  good  even  if  he  turns  out  to  be  bad  than  to  think 
him  to  be  bad  when  possibly  he  is  good.  This  spirit  is 
"  twice  blest  ; "  it  blesses  the  child  who  is  brought  under 
its  influence,  and  it  blesses  the  teacher  whose  action 
is  in  accord  with  it,  I  hardly  know  which  receives  the 
greater  blessing !  It  is  the  spirit  of  the  Great  Teacher 
in  all  of  His  attitudes  towards  weak  and  sinful  humanity. 
May  every  teacher  have  mora  of  this  spirit ! 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE   FIRST   DAY   OF   SCHOOL. 

Every  young  teacher  dreads  his  introduction  to  his 
school,  and  even  the  old  teacher  regards  the  first  day  in 
a  new  school  with  considerable  anxiety.  Very  much 
depends  upon  the  successful  meeting  of  the  duties  and 
difficulties  of  this  important  occasion.  The  establishment 
of  correct  relations  between  teacher  and  pupils  from  the 
outset  will  save  both  from  future  trouble  and  misunder- 
standing. Discipline  will  be  made  easier  and  more  natural, 
revolt  will  be  anticipated  and  prevented,  the  spirit  of 
the  work  in  hand  will  be  appreciated,  right  impressions 
will  be  formed,  which  will  extend  not  only  to  the  pupils 
but  also  to  the  parents  and  the  community  who  are 
eagerly  waiting  for  the  verdict  concerning  the  teacher 
when  the  children  shall  come  home  from  school.  Many 
teachers  make  mistakes  during  the  first  day  which  require 
weeks  of  labor  to  correct,  and  thus  seriously  handicap  their 
usefulness  in  the  school. 

Gathering  at  the  School.  —  The  teacher  should  be  early 
at  the  school  the  first  morning,  for  the  children  will  be 
there  early.  They  have  had  a  long  vacation,  and  are  eager 
to  get  back  to  school,  while  the  novelty  of  a  new  teacher 
has  its  attractions.  But  the  teacher  should  be  there 
before  any  considerable  number  have  assembled.  He 
should  meet  them  pleasantly  without  too  much  formality^ 

33 


34 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


engage  them  in  conversation,  and  get  them  to  assist  in 
putting  things  to  rights.  Naturalness  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  at  this  time  is  of  the  liighest  importance.  The 
children  will  not  be  deceived  by  any  assumed  characteris- 
tics, either  of  dignity  or  of  over-effusiveness. 

Opening  School.  —  At  the  appointed  time  call  the  school 
to  order,  and  let  the  children  take  seats  pretty  much  as 
they  please.  Permanent  seating  is  an  after-consideration. 
Open  the  Bible  at  once,  and  read  a  portion  of  Scripture 
without  comment,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  join  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  when  so  much  religious  exercise  is  allowed.  There 
is  nothing  that  will  bring  a  school  into  good  order  so  nat- 
urally and  effectually  as  these  simple  religious  exercises. 
For  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  these  exercises  should 
never  be  forbidden.  Religious  exercises  always  command 
respect  with  children  as  well  as  with  adults,  and  there  are 
but  few  people  who  will  refuse  to  assume  an  attitude  of 
reverence  while  such  exercises  are  in  progress.  There  are 
also  but  few  people,  whatever  their  creed,  that  will  object 
to  such  exercises  in  the  school,  provided  no  sectarian 
teaching  is  introduced. 

Whether  or  not  there  shall  be  singing  on  this  first  day 
depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  teacher  to  lead.  It  is 
better  to  have  none  than  to  have  a  fiasco.  Singing  should 
be  introduced  later,  when  the  teacher  has  found  out  who 
among  the  pupils  can  sing  and  what  pieces  they  know, 
even  if  the  teacher  cannot  sing.  Unfortunately,  we  have 
not  yet  reached  Luther's  dictum  of  four  hundred  years 
ago,  that  "  it  is  necessary  that  every  teacher  shall  be  able 
to  sing,"  a  requirement  that  is  met  by  every  teacher  in 
the  German  schools,  and  that  has  made  the  German  people 


THE   FIRST   DAY   OF    SCHOOL.  3<; 

lovers  of  music.  Singing  should  be  an  important  part  of 
school  exercises,  not  only  in  the  morning,  but  also  several 
times  during  the  day.  If  a  speech  is  to  be  made,  it  should 
be  next  in  order.  The  speech  certainly  should  not  be  long. 
A  few  words  expressing  a  strong  desire  to  be  the  friend 
and  helper  as  well  as  instructor  of  the  children  would  not 
be  amiss.  But  nothing  should  be  said  about  rules,  or  con- 
duct, or  discipline,  or  good  order ;  nor  should  there  be  any 
threats,  or  undue  exhibition  of  authority.  This  will  not 
be  necessary  at  the  outset,  for  the  children  on  this  first 
morning  will  be  watching  the  new  teacher  in  order  to  form 
a  judgment  of  the  material  of  which  he  is  made.  Out- 
breaks may  come  later,  and  the  young  teacher  must  be 
ready  for  them,  but  to  anticipate  them  by  suggestion  will 
only  precipitate  them  the  sooner.  Quiet,  firm,  clean-cut  in 
manner  and  speech,  the  teacher  will  give  his  pupils  the 
impression  that  he  does  not  say  much,  but  that  he  means 
all  he  says.  He  must  prove  to  his  pupils  that  he  is  there 
for  business,  that  he  knows  his  business,  and  that  the  first 
business  is  to  get  everybody  at  work.  The  commencement 
of  the  day  shou>'  be  perfectly  natural,  and  the  teacher 
should  assume  leadership  as  though  he  expected  perfect 
comradeship  with  his  pupils  without  resigning  his  right  to 
direct.  Whatever  is  said  or  done  should  embody  a  spirit 
of  frankness  and  sincerity,  while  it  carries  with  it  a  tone  of 
firmness  and  confidence. 

Securing  Names.  —  Having  the  old  register  in  his  pos- 
session, let  the  teacher  call  the  roll  from  that,  inquiring 
after  the  absentees,  and  supplementing  with  the  names  of 
the  new  pupils.  The  list  of  names  should  not  be  entered 
into  the  permanent  roll-book  for  a  few  days  until  the  chil- 


26  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

dren  who  are  coming  to  school  have  entered.  By  this  plan, 
only  a  few  minutes  will  be  required  to  secure  the  names  of 
all  the  pupils. 

Seating.  — We  have  seen  that  the  pupils  have  taken  seats 
where  they  pleased  when  they  came  in.  The  larger  pupils 
will  naturally  take  the  rear  seats,  and  the  smaller  ones 
those  nearer  the  front.  If  the  seats  are  graded  in  size,  this 
is  a  hygienic  arrangement.  If  the  seats  are  double,  it  may 
be  well  to  allow  the  children  to  choose  their  seat-mates; 
but  they  should  be  told  at  the  outset  that  this  arrangement 
will  hold  good  only  so  long  as  good  order  and  good  work 
follow.  Their  wishes  are  thus  respected,  and  at  the  same 
time  warning  is  given  that  the  purpose  of  the  school  must 
be  respected,  and  that  a  change  will  be  made  if  necessity 
demands  it.  It  puts  the  responsibility  of  good  behavior 
upon  them.  Of  course,  when  defects  of  hearing  or  eye- 
sight appear,  they  must  be  considered  in  seating  the  pupils. 
It  is  well,  at  this  point,  to  call  attention  to  the  care  of  the 
desks.  If  there  are  any  defects  in  the  school  furniture, 
careful  note  of  the  same  should  be  made,  and  the  children 
instructed  that  no  destruction  of  the  school  property  will 
be  tolerated.  Let  the  children  know  that  they  will  be 
called  to  a  strict  account  for  pencil-  or  knife-marks  on  their 
desks.  I  have  known  teachers  to  be  utterly  indifferent  to 
the  condition  and  preservation  of  school  property,  thereby 
doing  a  great  injustice  to  the  community  that  employs  them, 
and  committing  a  far  greater  wrong  against  the  pupils, 
upon  whom  the  lesson  of  regard  for  public  property  should 
be  impressed.  It  will  be  a  convenience  in  the  movement 
of  classes  to  have  those  belonging  to  the  same  class  sit 
near  one  another. 


THE   FIRST    DAY   OF    SCHOOL. 


37 


Carrying  Out  the  Daily  Schedule.  —  I  have  said  in  the 
preceding  chapter  that  the  teacher  must  provide  himself 
with  a  temporary  program  of  daily  work.  This  should  now 
be  carried  into  effect.  Let  us  suppose  that  first  on  the 
program  is  the  A  class  in  arithmetic.  Have  this  class  arise 
and  pass  to  the  recitation-benches  in  such  order  as  has  been 
decided  to  be  the  most  feasible  and  to  cause  the  least  con- 
fusion. In  a  mixed  school,  where  a  large  part  of  the  pupils 
are  engaged  in  study  while  a  class  is  reciting,  the  latter 
should  be  brought  to  the  front.  There  is  a  great  deal  in 
close  contact  between  teacher  and  pupils  while  instruction 
is  being  given.  I  once  witnessed  a  recitation  in  which  the 
pupils  were  ranged  on  benches  at  the  rear  of  a  large  room, 
the  teacher  being  at  the  front.  Aside  from  the  disturbance 
to  the  pupils  who  were  studying  in  the  room  caused  by  the 
teacher  shooting  over  their  heads,  as  it  were,  the  class  it- 
gelf  lost  much  of  the  force  of  the  instruction  because  of 
the  distance.  It  is  much  like  the  law  of  the  intensity  of 
light,  which  varies  inversely  with  the  square  of  the  distance. 
The  personality,  the  enthusiasm,  the  efficiency  of  the 
teacher,  will  be  greatly  increased  if  the  class  is  brought 
forward  so  as  to  be  in  close  contact  with  him.  The  best 
way  of  marching  classes  to  and  fro  should  be  adopted  so  as 
to  economize  time,  — a  very  important  item  in  a  mixed 
school  with  its  many  classes.  This  movement  should  be 
conducted  at  this  time  in  the  same  manner  that  it  is  pro- 
posed to  employ  in  the  future.     It  is  well  to  begin  right. 

Having  the  class  seated,  take  their  names,  distribute 
books  if  they  are  furnished,  and  assign  the  first  lesson. 
The  lesson  assigned  cannot  be  an  advance  lesson,  for  there 
is  no  time  to  explain  a  new  lesson.  It  certainly  should 
not  be,  "Take  the  first   lesson   in  the   book."     Assume 


3« 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


that  former  work  has  been  well  done  until  weaknesses  are 
discovered.  When  it  is  found  that  the  work  of  the  previous 
teacher  has  not  been  thorough,  the  pupils  will  be  reconciled 
to  go  over  it  again.  On  the  whole,  I  think  it  best  to  assign 
as  review  the  last  lesson  of  the  previous  term,  explaining 
to  the  pupils  that  there  is  no  time  to  speak  of  new  work, 
and  that  a  review  of  this  will  prepare  them  to  understand 
the  advance  work.  In  arranging  a  schedule  for  the  first 
day,  it  is  better  to  begin  with  the  older  pupils,  so  as  to 
get  them  at  work.  They  are  more  likely  to  be  disorderly 
when  unemployed  than  the  little  children. 

Call  the  next  class  in  arithmetic,  and  proceed  in  the 
same  manner.  So  proceed  with  all  the  classes  in  arith- 
metic until  all  the  classified  pupils  have  been  set  at  work. 
Time  may  now  be  taken  to  examine  and  classify  in  arith- 
metic the  new  pupils.  Such  classification,  however,  should 
be  tentative,  and  the  pupils  must  be  told  that  they  are 
being  placed  on  trial.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner  with 
the  classes  in  geography,  reading,  language,  etc.,  namely, 
call  to  the  recitation-benches,  take  names,  give  out  books, 
assign  lessons,  dismiss  to  their  seats,  look  after  new  pupils. 
The  taking  of  the  names  of  pupils  several  times  over  in 
this  way  will  serve  to  fix  them  in  the  teacher's  mind,  so 
that  before  the  close  of  the  first  day  he  can  easily  become 
familiar  wii-h  the  names  of  all  pupils  in  a  school  of  fifty 
children.  This,  in  itself,  is  a  very  important  beginning. 
Children  particularly  dislike  to  tell  their  own  names  re- 
peatedly, and  the  sooner  the  teacher  knows  the  names,  the 
sooner  he  will  be  master  of  the  situation.  No  time 
schedule  is  followed  this  first  day,  but  the  classes  are  called 
in  order  as  fast  as  the  above  scheme  of  work  can  be 
carried  out.     This  exercise,  besides  furnishing  opportunity 


THE  FIRST   DAY   OF  SCHOOL.  ^9 

to  learn  the  names,  accomplishes  other  important  ends. 
It  distributes  and  records  text-books  that  are  public 
property,  it  sets  tasks  for  the  pupils  to  begin,  it  starts  the 
machinery  of  the  school  in  motion,  it  has  a  business-like 
air  that  commands  respect.  One  other  suggestion  in 
regard  to  securing  the  names.  A  simple  device  is  to  have 
the  children  pin  their  names  upon  their  clothing  in  some 
exposed  place  until  the  teacher  knows  them. 

Employment.  —  It  will  be  apparent  that  in  the  preced- 
ing plan  the  importance  of  employment  for  children  is 
fully  recognized.  There  is  no  surer  and  better  means  of 
forestalling  mischief,  maintaining  order,  promulgating  the 
right  spirit,  and  fixing  the  notion  that  the  school  is  a 
business  enterprise,  than  by  keeping  the  pupils  busy. 
Establish  the  idea  at  the  outset  that  idleness  will  not  be 
tolerated.  Let  the  lessons  for  the  following  day  be  pre- 
pared in  regular  order. 

After  going  through  the  program  of  studies,  it  will  be 
found  profitable  to  practise  schoolroom  movements,  such 
as  passing  to  and  from  recitations,  going  to  the  black- 
board, marching  in  and  out  of  the  room,  as  well  as  about 
the  room.  Economy  in  time  will  be  secured  thereby,  and 
the  children  will  enjoy  these  exercises.  Besides  this, 
marching  exercises  are  an  excellent  means  of  gaining  con- 
trol of  a  school,  securing  respect  for  authority,  and  giving 
the  teacher  confidence  in  his  power  to  command. 

Should  there  still  be  time,  begin  with  the  class  whose 
recitation  falls  at  that  time  of  the  day,  say  two  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and  give  the  instruction  much  as  you  expect  to 
give  it  in  the  future.  The  pupils  have  had  no  time  to  pre- 
pare this  lesson,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  better  to  commence  the 


40  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

routine  of  work  so  that  the  regular  order  will  follow 
the  next  day.  Thus  the  day  will  be  completed,  and  the 
machinery  of  the  school  will  be  found  to  move  along 
smoothly  and  in  perfect  order. 

Recapitulation.  —  During  the  first  day,  the  following 
things  have  been  accomplished  : 

1.  The  names  of  all  the  pupils  have  been  learned,  a 
matter  of  no  small  importance. 

2.  The  pupils  have  all  been  classified,  and  their  names 
recorded  in  the  daily  register,  and  'n  their  proper  classes. 

3.  Books  have  been  given  out  and  charged  to  the  pupils. 

4.  Lessons  have  been  assigned,  and  the  children  have 
begun  to  prepare  them. 

5.  Some  familiarity  with  the  environment  has  been  ob- 
tained, and  the  machinery  of  the  school  set  in  motion. 

6.  Lastly,  a  good  impression  by  such  a  first  day  has 
been  made  upon  the  pupils  —  an  impression  that  the 
teacher  knows  what  he  wants  and  how  to  get  it,  that  he  is 
enthusiastic  and  zealous,  that  he  is  seeking  the  best  good 
of  his  pupils,  that  he  means  to  serve  the  community  to  the 
best  of  his  ability  ;  —  and  these  impressions  will  be  carried 
to  the  many  homes  represented  in  the  school,  and  to  the 
parents  who  have  eagerly  been  waiting  for  a  report  of  the 
first  day  of  school. 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE   DAILY    SCHEDULE    OF   WORK. 

The  tentativ^e  program  which  will  answer  for  the  first 
few  days  is  only  a  temporary  expedient.  After  a  short 
time,  when  the  teacher  shall  have  become  acquainted  with 
the  needs  of  the  school  and  with  the  work,  he  will  spend 
many  hours  in  devising  a  schedule  of  work  that  will  be 
harmonious,  that  will  properly  correlate  the  material,  that 
will  place  each  subject  where  the  greatest  good  can  be 
obtained  from  it,  taking  into  account  the  whole  field,  that 
will  recognize  the  rights  of  all  classes  and  grades  of 
children,  and  that  will  work  smoothly.  I  believe  that  a 
loss  of  ten,  twenty,  and  perhaps  a  still  greater  per  cent  in 
the  effectiveness  of  teaching,  often  occurs  from  an  im- 
properly arranged  program.  If  this  loss  were  sustained  by 
a  manufacturer,  a  merchant,  or  any  other  business  man  in 
the  conduct  of  his  establishment,  it  would  mean  ruin. 
Why  should  such  loss  be  tolerated  in  the  school  when  it 
can  be  avoided,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  school  increased 
from  ten  to  fifty  per  cent .?  A  great  deal  is  said  about 
waste  in  school  enterprise  ;  the  greatest  waste  of  all  comes 
from  an  improper  arrangement  of  the  daily  work.^ 

It  has  been  found  by  tests  that  the  child  is  more  accu- 
rate, more  attentive,  and  remembers  better,  the  first  period 
of  the  day  than  at  any  other  time  ;  that  his  strength  in 

1  See  chapter  on  the  Daily  Program  in  my  "  Foundations  of  Educa- 
tion." 

41 


41  A   NEW   SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

each  of  these  diminishes  during  the  progress  of  the  session, 
becoming  very  weak  after  a  long  session  ;  tliat  the  rest  of 
a  recess  or  change  of  occupation  recuperates  the  powers 
and  reinstates  the  mental  vigor  in  a  measure  ;  and  that 
while  some  subjects  gain  by  having  the  preference  as  to 
time  of  day  given  to  them,  others  lose  little  by  being 
placed  at  a  less  favorable  time.  Thus,  if  arithmetic, 
which  requires  keen  mental  alertness,  is  placed  early  in  the 
morning,  the  best  result  for  that  subject  is  obtained  ;  while 
if  it  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a  long  session,  it  loses  fear- 
fully. On  the  other  hand,  if  reading,  which  does  not 
require  such  intense  application  as  arithmetic,  is  placed 
first  in  the  day,  it  also  will  show  excellent  results  ;  if  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  session,  it,  too,  will  lose,  but  not  by  far 
to  such  an  extent  as  arithmetic.  Now,  the  question  of 
relative  values  does  not  enter  here.  It  is  not  whether 
arithmetic  or  reading  is  of  greater  educational  value,  but 
what  arrangement  of  studies  will  do  the  most  for  the  child. 
If  both  are  equally  benefited  by  receiving  preference  as  to 
time,  and  the  one  loses  fearfully  by  being  placed  at  the 
last  period,  while  the  other  loses  little,  the  arrangement 
should  be  such  as  would  cause  the  least  loss  and  reach  the 
best  results  all  around. 

In  general,  then,  the  rule  should  be  to  place  the  hardest 
subject  first  in  the  morning,  less  difficult  ones  following, 
until  those  requiring  the  least  apphcation  will  fall  at  the 
end  of  the  session.  If  there  is  a  long  noon  recess,  say 
of  an  hour  and  a  half,  or  two  hours,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  pupils  have  recuperated  so  as  to  be  able  to  take  up 
more  difficult  work  again ;  but  it  will  probably  be  found 
that  the  depletion  of  strength  is  more  rapid  than  in  the 
forenoon.     Hence  the  afternoon  session  should  be  shorter 


THE   DAILY    SCHEDULE   OF   WORK,  43 

than  the  morning  session,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  lessons 
should  be  easier. 

To    be   explicit,    it    would    seem    best    to    place   arith- 
metic the  first  thing  in  the  morning  (reading  for  beginners, 
because  it  is  their  hardest  subject),  followed  by  language 
work,    science,   reading,   drawing,   penmanship,   and  busy- 
work    for   the    little   children;   in   the  afternoon,  history, 
geography,  manual  training,  etc.     This  would  be  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  arranging  the  studies  whether  in  a  graded  or  an 
ungraded  school,  whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country.     Of 
course,  the  details  would  vary  according  to  circumstances. 
Little  children  m^ist  have  reading  and  number  work  each 
session  of  the  day.      But  these  are  the  general  principles 
upon  which  every  teacher  should  arrange  his  permanent  pro- 
gram ;  and  if  he  does  this,  there  will  be  economy  of  time, 
saving  of  waste,  without  extra  labor  or  exertion.     It  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  teacher  is  subject  to  the  same 
laws  of  physical  endurance  as  the  children,  and  that  he, 
too,  is  fresh  and  strong  at  the  beginning  of  the  day  and 
weary  at  its  close.     If  tests  were  made  upon  the  teacher,  it 
would  doubtless  be  found  that  an  adjustment  of  the  work 
along  the  lines  indicated  would  conserve  his  strength,  and 
greatly  add  to  the  force  and  efhciency  of  his  teaching. 

Daily  Lessons.  —  With  young  children  it  is  better  to 
have  daily  recitations  in  each  subject,  even  though  the 
period  be  short ;  and  with  first-  and  second-year  pupils  it 
is  advisable  to  have  more  than  one  recitation  a  day  in 
reading  and  number  work. 

A  friend  of  mine  arranged  for  an  hour's  lesson  and  con- 
versation in  German  once  a  week  for  her  six-year-old  boy. 
The  teacher  was  accomplished,  and   the  boy  bright   and 


44 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


intelligent  ;  but  after  seven  years  I  examined  the  boy  and 
found  that  he  had  accomplished  surprisingly  little.  Fif- 
teen minutes  or  even  ten  minutes  each  day  in  the  week 
would  have  secured  far  greater  results.  Maturer  pupils 
may  have  lessons  alternate  days  with  profit,  and  this  will 
be  necessary  in  the  country  school,  where  there  are  usu- 
ally a  few  large  boys  and  girls  who  want  to  do  some  ad- 
vanced work  ;  but  the  small  children  should  recite  every 
day.  It  is  better  to  concentrate  the  work  upon  a  few  sub- 
jects until  they  are  completed  than  to  carry  many  subjects 
by  having  them  only  on  alternate  days. 

The  Recess,  —  There  is  a  movement  in  many  places 
looking  to  the  abandonment  of  the  recess.  It  is  urged 
that  most  of  the  immoral  practices  of  the  school  crop  out 
during  recess,  that  it  causes  confusion,  that  it  wastes  time, 
and  that  it  provokes  disorder. 

As  to  the  immoral  tendencies  of  the  recess,  it  furnishes 
the  opportunity  for  quarrels,  for  the  use  of  vulgar  or  pro- 
fane language,  and  for  other  evils  incident  upon  a  number 
of  children  playing  together.  But  these  things  need  not 
be  if  the  teacher  exercises  a  proper  supervision  of  the 
children  during  their  recreation.  Not  that  the  teacher 
should  wholly  control  or  perhaps  even  direct  the  activities 
of  the  playground.  It  was  always  painful  for  me  to  wit- 
ness the  solemn  procession  of  German  children  under  the 
censorship  of  their  teacher  as  they  slowly  marched  around 
the  school-ground  at  the  recess,  as  is  their  usual  custom. 
Even  in  the  rare  cases  when  they  were  allowed  to  play,  it 
was  under  the  leadership  of  the  teacher,  and  was  wholly 
perfunctory.  But  the  teacher  should  mingle  with  the  chil- 
dren, joining  in  their  games  at  times  as  one  of  their  num- 


THE   DAILY    SCHEDULE    OF    WORK.  4<; 

ber,  and  always  know  what  is  going  on  among  them. 
There  should  be  all  the  freedom  and  relaxation  that  the 
circumstances  will  permit.  In  many  of  our  large  cities 
the  cost  of  building-sites  is  so  great  that  suitable  play- 
grounds cannot  be  provided.  Even  in  this  case  the  recess 
should  not  be  omitted,  but  the  childrerf*' should  be  fre- 
quently taken  out  of  their  rooms,  and  an  opportunity  for 
all  the  relaxation  possible  should  be  given  to  them. 

Instead  of  the  recess  fostering  immorality,  it  may  be 
made  of  the  highest  moral  utility.  Children  can  be  taught 
respect  for  the  rights  of  others,  unselfishness,  generosity, 
and  kindred  virtues  on  the  playground,  and  there  is  no 
exercise  in  the  schoolroom  or  subject  of  the  curriculum 
that  affords  such  excellent  chance  to  teach  these  virtues. 
As  men  and  women  they  will  associate  and  must  respect 
each  other's  rights.  The  recess  affords  a  means  of  teach- 
ing them  to  do  this.  Besides,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  children  do  mingle  freely  before  and  after  school,  and 
all  the  opportunities  for  evil  that  the  recess  offers  will  be 
offered  upon  plenty  of  occasions  where  there  is  no  over- 
sight or  restraint.  If  there  are  immoral  practices  at 
recess,  it  is  probable  that  the  trouble  lies  deeper  than  the 
surface,  and  that  the  school  is  lacking  in  moral  tone. 

Some  confusion  also  is  caused  by  the  recess.  But  it  is 
confusion  that  breaks  up  the  monotony,  that  reinvigorates 
and  puts  new  life  into  the  children.  There  is  no  reason 
why  pupils  should  not  pass  out  of  and  into  the  schoolroom 
in  perfect  order,  and  it  is  a  splendid  training  to  teach  them 
to  do  so.  And  when  they  are  again  seated  they  will  soon 
settle  down  to  their  work  with  new  oxygen  in  the  blood, 
and  new  strength  for  the  remaining  hours  of  school.  The 
recess  is  no  waste  of  time.     Indeed,  it  is  a  gain  in  time, 


46  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

for  with  the  abihty  to  do  better  work  they  will  more  than 
make  up  the  time  of  the  recess,  I  feel  sure  that  pupils 
will  accomplish  more  with  fifty  minutes'  work  and  ten  min- 
utes' rest  than  they  would  accomplish  in  the  full  sixty 
minutes  of  work  without  any  rest ;  and  this  principle  will 
hold  good  for  the  whole  school-day.  That  is  why  the  Ger- 
man schools  have  a  recess  of  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes 
every  hour.  It  will  be  found  also  that  the  relaxation  of 
the  recess  is  invaluable  for  the  teacher,  provided  he  will 
accept  it  as  such,  and  not  contmue  to  keep  busy  with  some 
kind  of  tasks. 

The  One-session  Plan.  —  Many  communities,  especially 
cities,  have  but  one  session  a  day,  extending  over  four  or 
five  hours  continuously,  with  one  or  two  short  intermissions. 
If  it  is  true  that  the  child's  powers  grow  weaker  with  each 
hour's  work,  —  and  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  of  it,  — the 
last  hours  of  a  long  session  must  be  of  greatly  diminished 
value  to  the  child,  if  not  distinctly  harmful.  Such  a  prac- 
tice may  be  followed  in  high  schools  where  the  children  have 
attained  sufficient  mental  and  physical  \dgor  to  stand  the 
long-sustained  exertion,  but  surely  it  should  not  be  inflicted 
upon  little  children,  who  need  frequent  and  extended  peri- 
ods of  rest.  It  is  of  questionable  wisdom  even  in  the  high 
school,  as  it  has  been  noticed  that  children  just  up  from  the 
grammar  school,  where  they  are  accustomed  to  two  sessions 
a  day,  find  the  strain  very  severe.  The  one-session  plan, 
it  is  true,  gives  both  teacher  and  pupils  a  long  afternoon 
for  work  as  well  as  recreation,  but  it  may  be  better  that 
school-work  should  be  done  under  the  supervision  of  teach- 
ers ;  that  not  too  much  home-work  should  be  required 
or  allowed.     Even  if  the  subjects  are  so  arranged  as  to 


THE   DAILY    SCHEDULE   OF   WORK.  47 

relieve  the  pupil  by  alternating  difficult  with  easy  subjects, 
—  and  great  relief  may  be  effected  by  this,  —  the  best  re- 
sults will  be  attained  when  there  is  an  intermission  at  mid- 
day of  at  least  an  hour  and  a  half,  with  short  recesses 
during  each  session.  All  German  schools  follow  the  two- 
session  plan,  with  a  noon  interval  of  at  least  two  hours. 

Number  of  Recitations  During  the  Day.  —  Most  mixed 
schools  have  too  many  recitations.  One  teacher  told  me 
that  she  had  "eighty-five  pupils  and  eighty-six  classes." 
Another,  who  spoke  seriously,  told  me  that  she  had  forty -two 
daily  recitations  in  her  school  of  fifty  pupils.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  the  best  work  cannot  be  done  with  so  many  classes. 
Twenty  recitations  a  day  should  be  the  maximum,  and  this 
should  be  reduced  if  possible.  In  graded  schools,  where  the 
teacher  has  only  one  or  two  grades  under  his  charge, 
the  number  can  be  brought  down  to  ten  or  twelve.  Let 
the  teacher  sit  down,  pencil  in  hand,  and  reckon  up  how 
many  classes  in  arithmetic,  geography,  reading,  language, 
etc.,  are  necessary,  and  if  the  number  foots  up  too  great, 
combine  and  eliminate  until  the  minimum  is  reached.  If 
there  are  twenty  recitations,  it  will  give  an  average  of 
about  fifteen  minutes  to  each.  Some  classes  will  need 
more  than  this,  as  those  in  advanced  arithmetic,  history, 
etc.,  while  others  will  not  need  so  much.  This  time,  fifteen 
minutes,  will  serve  as  a  measure  in  distributing  the  time 
among  the  classes.  The  size  of  the  classes  will  also  be  a 
factor  to  be  reckoned  with,  as  a  large  class  is  entitled 
to  more  time  than  a  small  one.  The  portion  of  time 
allotted  to  beginners  in  reading  and  number  can  be  divided, 
a  part  being  given  to  the  morning  and  a  part  to  the  after- 
noon, as  little  children  must  hnve  short  and  frequent  reci- 


48  A   NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

tations.  The  wise  and  just  allotment  of  time  to  the 
various  classes  is  a  very  important  matter.  It  may  require 
several  days  of  experimenting  before  a  progi-am  that  works 
smoothly  is  completed.  No  scheme  is  here  given  because 
it  is  a  problem  that  must  be  worked  out  by  each  teacher 
for  his  own  school.  Certain  principles  have  been  laid  down 
as  guides,  which  are  recapitulated  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 
Let  the  teacher  follow  these,  and  a  program  of  daily  work 
can  be  constructed  that  will  utilize  every  moment  of  time 
to  the  best  advantage. 

Seat-work.  —  The  seat-work  should  be  as  definitely 
specified  in  the  schedule  as  the  recitation.  A  time  for 
everything,  and  everything  at  its  proper  time,  is  a  good 
motto  for  both  teacher  and  pupils.  There  must  be  no 
wasting  of  valuable  time  in  the  seats  any  more  than  in  the 
recitation.  The  children  must  know  the  specific  work  they 
are  expected  to  do,  and  must  be  required  to  do  that  before 
they  may  do  anything  else.  This  will  be  found  to  aid 
materially  in  maintaining  good  order.  Children  are  always 
active,  and  they  soon  learn  to  direct  that  activity  in  a 
proper  channel,  and  that  is  good  order.  In  addition  to  \i\e 
regular  work  assigned,  there  should  be  special  work  out- 
lined that  the  pupils  may  do  when  their  regular  tasks  are 
completed.  This  will  furnish  employment  for  those  that 
learn  easily,  or  have  done  their  work  already.  This  work 
may  consist  of  topics  indicated  on  the  blackboard,  use  of 
books  of  reference,  events  of  history,  biography,  extra 
problems,  drawing,  etc.  The  main  thing  is  that  the  pupils 
early  learn  to  keep  busy.  Recapitulation  assists  the 
student  to  retain.  I  believe  in  it  most  thoroughly  as  a 
pedagogical  practice.     Hence,  this  should  be  retained. 


THE   DAILY    SCHEDULE    OF    WORK.  49 

Recapitulation.  —  The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  call 
attention  to  the  importance  of  a  proper  arrangement  of  the 
daily  schedule,  and  to  aid  the  teacher  in  making  such  an 
arrangement.  If  no  other  result  is  reached  than  to  lead 
the  teacher  to  watch  his  work,  rearrange,  experiment,  put 
lessons  that  are  not  properly  placed  at  some  other  time, 
until  the  best  results  are  obtained  for  the  work  as  a  whole, 
this  chapter  will  not  have  been  written  in  vain.  I  am 
convinced  that  many  of  the  disappointments  in  the  teacher's 
work  are  caused  by  an  improper  arrangement  of  the 
studies,  and  that  changes  could  often  be  made  to  strengthen 
the  weak  places  without  loss  to  the  others.  If  a  gain  of 
ten  per  cent  in  the  general  efficiency  of  the  school  can  be 
effected  by  a  careful  adjustment  of  the  subjects  of  the 
daily  schedule,  it  is  well  worth  while.  I  am  convinced 
that  fully  that  amount  can  be  saved. 

To  recapitulate  the  various  matters  considered  : 

1.  Do  not  allow  more  than  twenty  daily  recita- 
tions. 

2.  Take  fifteen  minutes  as  the  average  time  for  each 
recitation,  allowing  more  time  to  the  advanced  classes,  and 
less  to  the  beginners. 

3.  Place  the  hardest  subjects  first  in  the  morning,  less 
difficult  ones  next,  and  easy  subjects  at  the  close  of  the 
session.  Follow  the  same  general  plan  in  the  afternoon, 
though  the  afternoon  subjects  should  not,  on  the  whole,  be 
so  difficult  as  those  of  the  forenoon. 

4.  Alternate  the  hard  and  easy  subjects,  bearing  in 
mind,  however,  the  general  principles  stated  in  No.  3. 

5.  Indicate  seat -work  as  well  as  recitations. 

6.  Have  frequent  recesses,  which  should  be  periods  of 
total  relaxation. 


50 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


7.  Recitations  should  be  daily,  and  with  very  young 
children  twice  a  day. 

8.  The  work  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  each  class 
its  fair  share  of  the  teacher's  time. 

9.  The  teacher  should  guard  against  hobbies,  which 
lead  to  too  much  time  being  given  to  such  subjects  as  he 
likes,  and  to  the  neglect  of  other  subjects. 

10.  Take  into  account  the  whole  work  and  all  the  sub- 
jects to  be  taught  in  arranging  the  daily  schedule. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF  THE   SCHOOL. 

The  City  School.  —  The  city  school,  with  its  large  num- 
ber of  pupils  and  ample  corps  of  teachers,  can  be  graded 
according  to  ideal  plans.  The  work  below  the  high  school 
is  usually  divided  into  eight  grades,  each  grade  standing 
for  a  year's  work.  As  these  schools  are  quite  uniformly 
graded,  and  as  my  purpose  is  to  assist  in  the  work  of  con- 
struction, I  shall  pass  this  topic  by,  reserving  further  hints 
for  the  chapter  on  Promotion. 

The  Country  School.  —  Many  seem  to  think  that  the 
rural  school  cannot  be  graded,  and  thus  the  work  is  allowed 
to  drift  along  year  after  year,  each  teacher  following  pretty 
nearly  the  same  plan  that  his  predecessor  did,  or,  too  often, 
not  following  any  plan  at  all.  This  condition  of  things 
doubtless  grows  out  of  the  frequent  changes  in  teachers 
in  the  country  schools,  but  it  is  not  a  sufficient  excuse. 
No  teacher  should  plan  his  work  as  if  his  stay  was  to  be 
short ;  and  even  if  he  knows  that  it  will  be  short,  the  work 
should  be  planned  as  it  should  be  carried  out  whether  by 
him  or  by  some  one  else.  Every  new  teacher  should  find 
out  what  his  predecessor  has  attempted,  and  seek  to  carry 
farther  every  good  work  that  has  been  begun.  This  does 
not  mean  that  one  teacher  will  attempt  to  imitate  another. 
Each  teacher  must  imbibe  the  spirit  and  absorb  the  ideas 
of  every  good  teacher  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact,  but 

51 


52 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


he  must  work  them  out  in  his  own  way.  As  educational 
theory  becomes  more  settled,  its  practice  will  also  become 
more  uniform.  In  no  place  is  there  such  need  of  broad 
educational  theory,  and  consequently  of  trained  teachers, 
as  in  the  country.  The  fact  that  teachers  there  change 
more  frequently  makes  uniformity  more  difficult.  The 
problem  of  the  country  school  and  its  proper  grading  is 
calling  for  the  best  thought  of  educators  throughout  the 
land.  Of  course,  no  such  close  grading  as  that  of  the  town 
schools  is  practicable.  But  a  suitable  scheme  of  grading 
is  possible,  and  that  it  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  the 
rural  schools  has  been  shown  by  wise  thinkers  in  recent 
years.  The  reaction  from  the  movement  towards  the  city, 
which  shows  itself  in  so  many  business  men  utilizing  mod- 
ern means  of  transportation  and  establishing  their  homes 
in  the  country,  while  they  continue  business  in  the  city, 
would  be  encouraged  if  the  rural  school  were  made  attrac- 
tive and  efficient  for  their  children. 

Grading  in  German  Country  Schools.  —  We  might  well 
learn  the  lesson  that  Prussia  teaches  in  this  respect.  For 
more  than  a  century  her  rural  schools  of  all  descriptions 
have  been  divided  into  three  grades  (Stufen),  as  follows  : 
The  lowest  grade,  children  from  six  to  eight  ;  the  middle 
grade,  those  from  eight  to  eleven  ;  and  the  highest  grade, 
those  from  eleven  to  fourteen.  This  grading  is  one  of  the 
important  factors  in  securing  the  remarkable  efficiency  of 
these  schools.  It  is  true  that  the  teachers  are  all  normal 
graduates,  that  they  are  under  careful  inspection,  that 
changes  are  very  infrequent,  and  therefore  the  work  is 
systematized  and  brought  to  a  professional  basis.  Doubt- 
less the' grading  of  all  the  schools  has  had  a  tendency  to 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE    SCHOOL. 


S3 


create  a  want  for  these  most  desirable  conditions,  and 
made  efficient  teachers  a  necessity  to  the  success  of  the 
system.  If  the  grading  of  our  rural  schools  could  have 
that  effect,  it  would  cure  two  of  the  greatest  evils  of  our 
school  system,  namely,  inefficient  teachers  and  lack  of 
permanency  in  positions.  It  has  had  that  effect  in  a  large 
measure  in  our  city  schools,  so  that  the  weakest  place  in 
our  educational  scheme  is  the  rural  school. 

Advantages  of  the  Mixed  School.  —  It  may  be  profitable 
to  study  the  advantages  of  the  mixed  school  as  well  as 
those  of  the  graded  school.  The  mixed  school  is  not  with- 
out certain  benefits.  Some  of  the  greatest  men  of  our  land 
received  their  early  education,  and  indeed  in  many  cases  all 
of  their  training,  in  the  old-fashioned  country  school.  No 
one  can  tell  what  the  result  might  have  been  had  they 
been  trained  in  the  graded  school  with  its  many  helps  and 
its  superior  facilities.  Perhaps  it  would  have  "  ironed  all  the 
originality  out  of  them."  Perhaps  they  would  have  been 
far  greater  than  they  became.  It  is  useless  to  speculate 
upon  the  probabilities.  But  what  are  the  advantages  of 
the  mixed  school  ? 

I.  T//e  cJiild  learns  to  be  seJf-reliant. — He  works  largely 
as  an  individual,  and  receives  but  little  help  from  the 
teacher.  The  criticism  so  often  heard  in  these  days,  that 
the  teacher  does  too  much  for  the  pupil,  a  complaint  that 
is  probably  well  founded,  could  not  be  made  of  the  old-time 
school.  The  child  was  set  at  his  task,  and  left  to  do  it 
largely  as  he  pleased,  in  his  own  way  and  in  his  own  time, 
and  the  teacher  examined  the  work  to  see  if  it  was  done  — 
in  other  words,  "heard  the  lesson."  This  caused  great 
waste  of  effort  on  the  child's  part,  often  brought  discourage- 


54  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

ment,  and  sometimes  led  to  his  abandonment  of  the  task 
and  the  school.  But  it  had  a  tendency  to  cultivate  the 
self-reliance  which  makes  strong  men,  and  admirably  pre- 
pared them  to  cope  with  life's  hard  duties  with  confidence 
and  success. 

2.  It  encourages  individual  zvoj'k.  —  The  child  could 
work  at  his  own  pace  without  being  held  back  by  slower 
pupils  or  over-hastened  by  those  capable  of  greater  speed 
than  he.  He  escaped  what  is  now  considered  the  great 
defect  of  a  closely  graded  system,  the  so-called  "  lock-step," 
which  holds  him  to  the  pace  that  the  rest  of  the  class  can 
maintain.  On  the  other  hand,  he  lost  some  of  the  stimulus 
of  rivalry  with  others  of  his  class,  those  that  were  his 
equals  or  his  betters.  Of  this  I  shall  speak  in  another 
place,  in  treating  the  advantages  of  a  graded  school. 

3.  It fjirnisJies  an  opportiinity  for  cJiildren  to  learn  from, 
the  recitations  of  the  higher  classes.  — ■  The  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  shows  that  in  1899  the  "aver- 
age number  of  years  of  schooling  (of  200  days  each)  that 
each  individual  of  the  population  received,  .  .  .  taking  into 
account  all  public  and  private  schools  of  whatever  grade," 
was  4.96.  Thus,  on  an  average  the  child  attends  school 
less  than  five  years,  and  therefore  many  of  the  subjects  of 
the  higher  grades  will  never  be  reached  by  him.  Children 
in  the  mixed  school  pick  up  a  great  deal  of  information  by 
listening  to  the  work  of  older  pupils  in  recitation,  that  they 
would  never  reach  because  of  their  early  withdrawal  from 
school.  It  may  be  urged  that  this  will  lead  them  to  neg- 
lect their  own  work,  that  it  will  be  confusing,  and  cause 
dissipation  of  thought  and  energy.  Experience  has  shown 
that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  children  soon  become 
accustomed  to  the  situation  and  are  not  disturbed  thereby. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE    SCHOOL.  55 

4.  There  are  not  so  jnany  outside  distractions  for  the 
gauntry  child.  —  The  charge  has  been  made  against  the 
public  school,  that  its  severe  requirements,  its  high  pressure, 
its  demands  upon  the  vital  energy  of  the  child,  are  giving 
our  pupils  nervous  prostration.  Surely,  no  one  ever  hears 
this  in  connection  with  pupils  in  the  country  school !  And 
if  the  truth  were  known,  it  would  be  found  that  the  cases 
of  nervousness  among  town  children  are  traceable  to  out- 
side distractions, —  the  theatre,  parties,  entertainments,  late 
hours, —  and  not  often  to  their  school-work.  The  school  is 
the  central  interest  in  the  country  district,  and  the  child 
is  free  from  the  abnormal,  unhealthful,  and  unnatural  stimuli 
that  constantly  invite  the  attention  of  the  city  child. 

5.  The  country  school  affords  opportunity  to  study  nature 
at  first  hand.  —  If  the  teacher  knows  how  to  utilize  this  fact, 
most  healthful  and  valuable  lessons  can  be  imparted  to 
child  life.  The  trouble  is,  too  often,  that  we  go  to  books 
to  study  geography,  plant,  and  animal  life,  and  the  various 
fields  of  natural  science,  when  the  most  beautiful  and 
practical  lessons  are  undiscovered  at  the  very  door  of  the 
schoolhouse,  Froebel  appreciated  this  while  walking  through 
the  Thuringian  Forest,  when  the  name  "  Kindergarten  " 
came  to  him  like  an  inspiration  as  "  a  good  name  for  his 
youngest-born." 

6.  It  trains  to  responsibility.  —  It  must  be  admitted  that 
the  duties  of  the  farm  and  country  life  afford  greatest 
opportunities  in  training  the  child  to  assume  and  discharge 
responsibilities.  The  care  of  fowls,  of  livestock,  the  doing 
of  home  chores,  the  work  of  the  household,  the  assist- 
ing in  the  manifold  duties  of  farm-life,  are  educative 
influences  in  the  highest  sense.  It  is  a  splendid  thing  for 
a  boy  or  girl  to  be  brought  up  with  this  environment,  even 


r6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

though  life  has  many  hardships  and  much  toil.  Many  of 
the  great  men  of  our  country  have  grown  up  under  these 
very  influences.  I  think  the  country  school  also  may 
claim  its  share,  in  conjunction  with  country  life,  in  foster- 
ing these  responsibilities  which  so  well  prepare  for  life,  and 
which  materially  increase  the  country  boy's  chances  of 
success  when  he  goes  out  into  the  world. 

Advantages  of  the  Graded  School.  —  \Ve  think  of  the 
graded  school  in  this  connection  as  the  school  that  is  large 
enough  to  maintain  a  number  of  teachers  and  has  at  least 
eight  grades.      Its  advantages  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

1 .  It  has  a.  good  organization.  —  With  a  number  of  teach- 
ers there  can  be  a  better  division  of  labor,  a  closer 
grading  of  the  pupils  to  meet  individual  advancement,  a 
more  carefully  worked  out  course  of  study,  and  a  systerri- 
atic  adherence  to  a  plan  of  work.  WHiile  there  is  danger 
that  too  much  organization  may  make  the  school-work 
perfunctory  and  mechanical, —  a  danger  that  has  led  educa- 
tors to  devise  means  of  promoting  outside  of  the  regular 
routine,  and  to  adopt  means  of  helping  the  individual  pupil, 
—  still  it  must  be  claimed  that  the  graded  school  has  proved 
economical  both  as  to  cost  of  maintenance  and  as  to  effort 
involved,  and  has  been,  on  the  whole,  most  salutary  in  its 
results.     It  is  one  of  the  indications  of  progress  in  educa- 

■  tional  enterprise,  and  its  lessons  should  be  utilized  in  a 
great  measure  by  the  mixed  school,  which  lacks  in  organi- 
zation. 

2.  //  can  afford  better  teachers.  —  Because  it  pays 
better  salaries,  offers  more  congenial  work,  has  better  en- 
vironment, does  not  change  its  corps  so  often,  the  city 
school  secures  better  teachers.     This  is  inevitable  and    is 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE   SCHOOL.  57 

not  to  be  deprecated.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  teacher 
should  not  better  his  condition  by  seeking  a  position  that 
pays  a  higher  salary  and  offers  opportunity  for  professional 
advancement.  Association  with  other  teachers  not  only, 
but  the  many  attractions  of  the  town,  are  inducements  that 
allure  enterprising  and  well-qualified  teachers,  inducements 
that  the  country  school  cannot  offer.  Consequently  the 
best  teachers  naturally  gravitate  towards  the  town  graded 
schools. 

3,  Its  pupils  remain  longer  in  school.  —  With  its  full 
eight  years'  course  and  eight  grades,  and,  in  most  towns, 
its  high  school  beyond  these,  the  child  is  more  apt  to  re- 
main longer  in  school.  It  gets  into  an  educational  atmos- 
phere that  is  wanting  in  the  country  school.  He  hears 
about  the  high  school  and  the  college,  and  is  more  likely 
to  lay  his  plans  to  attend  one  if  not  both  of  these.  The 
establishment  of  a  high  school  in  a  community  always  has 
the  effect  of  inducing  children  to  remain  a  longer  time  in 
a  grammar  school.  In  a  word,  it  is  an  example  of  building 
from  the  top  downwards.  The  college  elevates  the  high 
school,  and  the  high  school  leads  the  elementary  school  to 
higher  ideals.  The  child  with  heights  before  him,  is  more 
likely  to  be  ambitious  to  climb  than  if  there  are  no  heights 
that  beckon  him  upward,  nothing  more  lofty  towards  which 
he  can  aspire.  Thus  he  is  kept  longer  at  school,  and 
greater  opportunity  is  afforded  the  teacher  to  mould  him 
according  to  the  ideals  of  manhood  that  he  has  conceived. 

4.  //  arouses  greater  ambitions.  —  Contact  with  others 
of  about  the  same  ability  arouses  the  child's  ambition. 
In  a  healthy  graded  school  there  is  a  constant  stimulus  to 
work,  awakened  by  seeing  classmates  work.  In  the 
country  school,  where  there  are  few  or  no  ambitious  class- 


58  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

mates,  this  stimulus  is  lacking.  Healthful  emulation  serves 
to  bring  out  the  powers  to  their  fulness.  That  is  one 
reason  why  a  child  would  be  taught  better  in  classes  with 
other  children  rather  than  by  a  private  tutor,  even  though 
the  tutor  be  superior  and  though  he  devote  all  his  time  to 
his  pupil.  Children  are  inspired  to  greater  exertion, 
whether  in  school  or  on  the  playground,  by  seeing  other 
children  try.  Hence  the  graded  school  is  to  be  com- 
mended as  a  means  of  securing  better  and  more  continu- 
ous w^ork. 

5.  //  secures  more  regular  attendance.  —  Better  roads, 
shorter  distances,  fewer  home  duties  to  perform,  make  it 
easier  to  secure  regular  attendance  in  the  town  than  in  the 
country.  There  are  so  many  ways  in  the  country  in  which 
the  children  can  be  useful  that  parents  far  too  often  are 
inclined  to  keep  them  out  of  school.  The  boy  can  save 
the  wages  of  an  extra  man,  and  the  girl  can  perform  many 
household  duties,  care  for  younger  children,  etc.  Attend- 
ance in  the  country  school  is  therefore  often  irregular. 
Parents  should  not  forget  that  their  highest  duty  to  their 
offspring,  a  God-given  duty,  which  no  circumstance  save 
illness  can  excuse,  is  to  furnish  them  an  opportunity  to 
obtain  an  education,  and  allow  nothing  to  interfere  there- 
with. It  is  the  inherent  right  of  every  child  to  be  edu- 
cated, and  the  needs  of  the  family,  the  selfishness  of 
parents,  even  poverty,  can  offer  no  excuse  for  preventing 
or  withholding  that  right.  Not  only  the  future  of  the 
child,  but  also  that  of  the  nation,  depends  upon  jealously 
guarding  that  inestimable  right.  In  this  respect  the  city 
school  more  nearly  realizes  the  ideal  in  regularity  of 
attendance  than  the  country  school. 

6.  //  is  furnished  with    better  material   means.  —  The 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE    SCHOOL.  59 

schoolhouses  are  generally  better,  the  apparatus  ampler, 
and  the  text-books  more  modern  and  plentiful.  With 
more  means  at  command,  the  city  school  board  is  able  to 
supply  the  essential  needs  of  the  school  with  greater  liber- 
ality, and  the  enterprise  and  intelligence  of  a  live  town 
assure  a  greater  outlay  of  money  for  education  than  is  pos- 
sible in  the  country  district,  where  there  is  lack  of  means 
as  well  as  absence  of  a  spirit  of  healthful  rivalry. 

Thus,  while  there  are  obvious  advantages  in  the  mixed 
country  school,  those  of  the  graded  city  school  are  far 
superior,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  secure  for  the 
country  children  many  of  these  advantages.  Two  methods 
to  accomplish  this  end  have  been  suggested,  and  are  being 
carried  out  in  many  sections.  These  are  the  centraliza- 
tion of  the  school  interests  by  transporting  the  children  at 
public  expense,  and  the  grading  of  the  schools,  or  both. 

The  Transportation  of  Pupils.  —  The  exodus  of  popula- 
tion from  many  country  districts  has  reduced  the  number 
of  school  children  so  low  that  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  a 
school.  There  is  a  minimum  as  well  as  a  maximum  limit, 
beyond  which  it  is  not  profitable  to  maintain  a  school. 
From  forty  to  fifty  pupils  should  be  the  maximum  number 
assigned  to  a  teacher,  and  the  minimum  should  not  be  less 
than  twenty  or  twenty-five.  Below  this  number  the  per 
capita  cost  to  the  district  becomes  too  great,  while  the 
smallness  of  the  classes  makes  it  difficult  to  keep  up  the 
interest.  A  growing  recognition  of  these  facts  has  led  to 
the  adoption  of  plans  of  centralizing  scattered  children  and 
combining  several  schools  in  one.  This  is  done  by  aban- 
doning small  schools  and  transporting  the  children  at  pub- 
lic expense  to  some  central  school,  which  can  be  graded. 


6o  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Thus  the  children  from  remote  districts  are  afforded  many 
of  the  advantages  of  the  graded  school  already  set  forth, 
while  still  living  upon  the  farm  and  retaining  the  advan- 
tages of  country  life.  Experiments  have  proved  that  this 
can  be  done  without  increasing  the  total  cost  of  education. 
This  seems  to  afford  a  solution  of  the  question  as  to  the 
better  education  of  children  in  isolated  districts.  Increased 
attendance,  regularity,  punctuality,  longer  school  year, 
better  teachers,  and  better  instruction,  and  more  inspiring 
educational  environments,  are  secured  by  this  plan.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  centralization  of  schools  by  this 
means  should  not  increase  in  favor  and  thereby  strengthen 
our  educational  work  in  its  weakest  place.  The  chief  ob- 
stacle that  stands  in  the  way  is  the  sentiment  for  "  the 
little  red  schoolhouse,"  where  parents  and  grandparents 
got  their  education.  This  doubtless  will  gradually  give 
way  to  the  necessities  of  the  case,  and  to  the  overwhelm- 
ing argument  of  better  educational  facilities  furnished. 

How  to  Grade. — The  great  majority  of  our  country 
schools  are  without  any  system  of  grading.  I  have  pointed 
out  the  advantages  of  graded  schools,  and  while  all  of  these 
may  not  be  reached  by  the  country  school,  with  its  small 
numbers  and  meagre  facilities,  is  it  not  worth  while  to  adopt 
some  plan  of  grading  .?  Shall  the  new  teacher  drift  along 
in  the  same  track  in  which  his  predecessors  had  moved, 
with  no  effort  to  bring  order  out  of  the  chaos  of  work,  or 
shall  he  begin  at  once  intelligently  to  grade  his  school  .? 
Too  often  the  short  tenure  of  office  in  a  school  discourages 
the  teacher  from  beginning  a  new  enterprise,  and  leads  him 
to  let  things  go  as  they  have  been  going.  Two  things  are 
necessary  to  obviate  this  evil:  (i)  greater  permanency  in 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE    SCHOOL.  6 1 

positions,  and  (2)  a  uniform  scheme  of  grading  for  country 
schools  required  by  law,  enforced  by  the  school  authorities, 
and  supported  by  public  opinion.  So  long  as  teachers  fre- 
quently change,  and  so  long  as  there  is  no  agreement  as 
to  uniform  grading,  no  progress  will  be  made.  I  therefore 
make  bold  to  offer  a  scheme  of  grading  for  country 
schools  which,  while  it  by  no  means  attempts  to  say  the 
final  word,  may  furnish  a  basis  upon  which  to  build,  and 
which  may  lead  to  the  ideal  plan.  The  new  teacher  should 
grade  his  school  at  the  earliest  moment  after  he  has  famil- 
iarized himself  with  the  situation.  Of  course,  the  mbicd 
school  cannot  be  graded  with  the  regular  eight  grades  of 
the  city  system.  It  would  require  too  many  recitations, 
and  many  of  the  classes  would  be  too  small  for  effective 
work.  With  but  one  teacher  in  the  school  the  number  of 
grades  should  not  be  more  than  three.  I  shall  therefore 
present  a  scheme  of  grading  based  on  that  plan. 

A  Three-grade  Scheme.  —  I  have  shown  (p.  5  2)  that  for 
a  century  the  Germans  have  graded  their  country  schools 
by  the  three-grade  plan,  and  this  is  the  general  idea  of  the 
Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion in  its  report.  How  shall  the  teacher  who  enters  a 
school  that  has  never  been  graded  proceed  to  grade  it  so 
that  the  benefits  of  systematized  work  may  be  secured 
without  creating  too  many  classes  and  necessitating  too 
many  daily  recitations,  and  without  establishing  too  much 
school  machinery  ?  Let  him  select  two  subjects,  such  as 
arithmetic  and  reading  as  a  basis,  —  for  these  subjects 
embrace  all  the  pupils,  — and  classify  those  up  to  eight 
years  of  age  in  the  C  grade,  from  eight  to  eleven  in  the 
B  grade,  and  above  eleven  in  the  A  grade.     Of  course, 


6i 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


qualifications  in  the  two  subjects  will  take  precedence  of 
the  age  limit,  but  the  latter  will  serve  as  a  guide.  No  fixed 
or  absolute  rule  can  be  established  as  to  the  grade  in  which 
a  child  shall  be  put,  and  the  first  assignment  will  necessarily 
be  tentative,  subject  to  such  change  as  the  demonstrated 
ability  of  each  pupil  may  later  indicate.  Thus,  if  a  pupil  is 
in  advance  of  or  below  pupils  of  his  age  in  these  subjects,  he 
will  be  placed  in  the  grade  correspondingly  higher  or  lower 
as  his  case  requires.  If  this  does  not  furnish  division  of 
the  work  in  given  subjects  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
pupils,  let  there  be  two  divisions  of  the  grade  in 
those  subjects  ;  as,  for  example,  in  reading  there  will 
necessarily  be  more  than  three  classes.  It  will  often 
be  found  that  two  divisions  can  be  ultimately  merged  into 
one,  and  in  any  case  they  can  be  worked  together.  The 
scheme  may  be  illustrated  as  follows  : 


A   THREE-GRADE    SCHEME. 


A 

Arithmetic  i 
Arithmetic  2 

Reading 

Geography 

History 

B 

Arithmetic 

Reading 

Geography  i 
Geography  2 

History 

C 

Arithmetic 

Reading  i 
Reading  2 

CONTINUED. 


A 

1 
Language               Science 

Writing 

Drawing 

B 

Language 

Nature 
Work 

Writing 

Drawng 

C 

Nature 
Work 

Writing 

Drawing 

This  is  merely  an  illustration,  the  teacher  making  two 
divisions  in  such  subjects  as  will  best  classify  the  school. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   TH.^    SCHOOL.  6^ 

In  some  of  these  subjects,  as  writing  and  drawing,  all  three 
grades  can  be  worked  together.  It  is  also  possible  that 
both  divisions  of  a  grade  in  other  subjects  can  recite 
together,  thus  enabling  subdivisions  in  other  subjects 
without  having  too  great  a  number  of  recitation  periods  or 
too  short  periods.  This  will  not  prevent  a  child  whose 
general  classification  is,  say,  B,  from  taking  work  in  another 
grade  if  he  will  get  greater  good  from  it.  I  repeat,  too  rigid 
classification  should  not  be  insisted  upon,  and  the  children 
should  be  made  to  understand  that  the  first  classification 
is  only  a  trial,  and  that  corrections  will  follow  as  soon  as 
it  is  demonstrated  that  an  error  has  been  made. 

Grading  of  a  country  school  along  these  lines  would 
have  the  following  effect  : 

1.  The  children  will  have  definite  aims  before  them, 
and  they  will  be  able  to  measure  their  progress  by  a  well- 
understood  standard. 

2.  There  will  always  be  before  them  the  incentive  to 
work  forward  into  the  next  class  ;  for  instance,  from  B  ^  to 
B^  from  B^  to  A^,  etc.  In  such  a  school,  while  there 
should  be  regular  times  of  promotion,  a  child  should  be 
advanced  at  any  time  of  the  year  that  he  is  prepared  to  go 
higher. 

3.  It  will  be  possible  to  outline  a  course  of  study. 
County  superintendents  who  pr"ovide  a  course  of  study  for 
the  country  schools  can  easily  prepare  their  examination 
questions  with  reference  to  such  grading. 

4.  Parents  also  will  have  an  intelligible  standard  by 
which  to  judge  the  progress  of  their  children. 

5.  It  will  introduce  system  where  there  is  chaos,  order 
where  there  is  confusion. 

6.  If  there  are  frequent  changes  of  teachers,  the  school 


64 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


will  not  suffer  so  much,  because  there  is  a  general  plan  of 
work  to  which  all  teachers  can  readily  conform.  If  a 
teacher,  upon  withdrawing  from  a  school,  leaves  the  details 
of  grading  that  has  been  in  use,  his  successor  can  take  up 
the  work  without  serious  loss  to  the  pupils. 

It  only  remains  for  the  school  authorities  of  a  State  to 
adopt  such  a  plan  of  grading  in  order  that  there  may  be 
uniformity  among  the  country  schools  as  there  is  among 
the  city  schools  with  their  eight  grades.  Such  a  simple 
scheme  of  grading  our  country  schools  is  entirely  feasible, 
and  its  introduction  would  work  incalculable  good  to  them. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT. 

Probably  no  duty  in  connection  with  school-teaching 
causes  so  much  anxiety  to  the  young  teacher  as  that  of 
maintaining  order.  If  it  is  a  graded  school,  under  a 
principal  who  possesses  the  authority  and  whose  advice  can 
be  solicited,  the  difficulty  is  not  so  great  for  those  in 
subordinate  positions.  Even  here  it  is  well  known  that 
the  first  thing  noticed  by  a  principal  upon  entering  the 
room  of  a  new  teacher  is  the  order  maintained.  There 
can  be  no  successful  school-work  unless  there  is  proper 
regulation.  If  a  teacher  is  unable  to  maintain  order  with- 
out too  frequent  recourse  to  the  principal,  the  teacher's 
tenure  of  office  will  necessarily  be  short.  A  reasonable 
amount  of  power  in  discipline  is  a  positive  requisite  of  every 
teacher,  whether  as  principal,  assistant,  or  sole  teacher  in  a 
country  school.  One  must  know  how  to  deal  with  refractory 
pupils,  must  be  full  of  resources  in  the  management  of 
children,  must  be  self-reliant  and  of  positive  character,  in 
order  to  become  a  successful  teacher  in  the  common 
school.  Owing  to  the  importance  of  this  question,  I 
propose  to  enter  into  a  somewhat  full  discussion  of  it. 
The  chief  end  in  view  will  be  to  instruct  and  aid  the 
teacher  who  has  sole  charge  of  a  school  in  the  solution  of 
this  difficult  problem.  Teachers  of  the  graded  school, 
also,  may  perchance  find  valuable  suggestions  in  this 
discussion. 

65 


56  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Discipline  a  Means  to  an  End.  —  It  is  not  to  be  inferred 
that  discipline  is  to  liave  the  first  place  in  the  thought  of 
the  school,  though  it  may  be  the  first  thing  to  which  atten- 
tion is  called  upon  entering  a  schoolroom.  Indeed,  the 
best  discipline  is  that  which  remains  in  the  background, 
that  calls  for  but  little  attention,  that  takes  care  of  itself. 
There  are  teachers  who  constantly  talk  about  good  order, 
and  who  seem  to  think  that  the  whole  purpose  of  the 
school  is  to  keep  the  children  out  of  mischief.  Such 
teachers  are  apt  to  have  the  worst  kind  of  order  ;  not 
the  most  noise,  it  is  true,  but  the  repression,  the  austerity 
that  chills ;  the  constant  surveillance  that  awakens  fear, 
but  challenges  to  mischief ;  the  spirit  that  fosters  slyness 
while  it  rules  by  intimidation.  The  reason  for  order  in  the 
school  is  that  it  is  a  means  to  an  end,  that  end  being  study 
and  legitimate  school-work.  Many  things  that  are  by  no 
means  evil,  and  that  may  be  freely  done  out  of  school,  may 
not  be  done  here,  because  they  would  interfere  with  the 
work.  Absolute  stillness  is  not  essential  to  good  order. 
The  county  superintendent  who  approached  a  country 
school  on  horseback,  and,  in  order  to  test  how  well  his 
ideal  of  discipline  was  being  maintained,  previous  to  his 
visit  circled  about  the  school,  swinging  his  hat  and  shout- 
ing like  a  cowboy,  and  then  scolded  the  teacher  because 
she  allowed  the  children  to  look  out  of  the  windows  at  his 
crazy  antics,  had  false  notions  of  the  necessary  quiet  of  a 
school.  There  are  times  when  a  hearty  laugh  should  be 
indulged  in,  and  this  certainly  was  such  a  time. 

The  ends  to  be  sought  in  school  discipline  are  two, 
namely,  (i)  the  protection  of  the  rights  of  every  individual 
child,  and  (2)  the  maintenance  of  the  good  name  of  the 
school  as  a  whole.     Every  child  has  a  right  to  study  his 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  67 

lessons  without  disturbance,  and  he  also  has  the  right  to 
protection  from  annoyances  from  others  whether  on  the 
playground  or  in  the  schoolroom.  Perfect  freedom  and 
equality  upon  the  playground  must  be  guaranteed  to  every 
pupil,  and  the  undisturbed  possession  of  his  seat  and  the 
right  to  study  without  interference  must  be  assured  to  him. 
The  school  that  does  not  guarantee  every  child  that  equal- 
ity and  that  right  cannot  be  said  to  have  good  order. 

In  the  second  place,  not  only  must  the  rights  of  the 
child  be  preserved,  but  the  discipline  of  the  school  as  a 
whole  must  be  such  as  not  to  impair  its  good  name  or 
awaken  public  criticism.  Thus,  too  much  whispering,  too 
loud  study,  or  unnecessary  noise  in  the  schoolroom,  or  un- 
seemly boisterousness  out  of  doors,  or  trespassing  upon 
the  neighbors  about  the  school  or  on  the  way  home,  may 
bring  the  school  into  disrepute. 

All  forms  of  disorder  may  be  classed  under  these  two 
heads,  —  protection  of  the  individual,  and  preservation  of 
the  good  name  of  the  school.  The  teacher  can  appeal  to 
the  pupils  for  a  violation  of  either,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Thus,  "  You  are  preventing  William  from  learning  his 
lesson,"  would  illustrate  the  first,  and,  "  Children,  there  is 
too  much  noise  for  a  well-ordered  school,"  would  be  an 
example  of  the  second.  The  ends  of  discipline  will  be 
clearly  set  forth,  appeals  can  be  made  to  children  in 
matters  that  they  can  easily  understand,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  discipline  of  the  school  will  not  be  made  too 
prominent. 

Obedience.  — The  most  essential  requisite  of  good  order 
is  implicit  obedience.  The  teacher,  by  virtue  of  his  office, 
has  a  right  to  expect  and  exact  it.     The  license  to  teach 


68  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

and  the  appointment  to  a  school  clothes  the  teacher  with 
all  necessary  authority,  and  the  law  sustains  him  in  demand' 
ing  obedience.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  children  to  obey 
promptly,  and  the  teacher  who  requires  this  obedience  with 
firmness  will  have  but  little  trouble  in  securing  good  order. 
Nothing  less  than  complete  and  cheerful  compliance  with 
his  requirements  should  satisfy  the  teacher,  though  it  may 
not  always  be  possible  to  secure  it  immediately.  To  illus- 
trate this  point,  let  us  suppose  that  a  child  is  told  to  close 
a  door ;  he  does  it  angrily,  with  a  slam  ;  he  has  not  obeyed, 
though  he  has  performed  the  act  required.  Let  him  be 
told  to  close  it  quietly  ;  he  again  complies,  but  rudely 
stamps  his  feet  on  his  way  to  the  door.  Once  more  he  has 
not  been  really  obedient,  and  cannot  be  until  he  shall  have 
properly  carried  out  the  teacher's  command.  The  external 
requirement  has  been  met,  and  possibly  that  is  all  that  the 
teacher  should  insist  upon  at  that  time,  but  in  spirit  —  the 
pupil  is  still  disobedient,  and  with  this,  the  teacher  must 
not  be  finally  satisfied.  In  the  story  of  Laura  Bridgman, 
the  blind  mute  who  attracted  so  much  attention  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century,  we  have  a  case  in  point. 
Laura  had  left  some  object  on  her  desk  contrary  to  the 
wish  of  her  teacher.  Upon  being  told  to  put  it  away,  she 
raised  the  desk,  put  the  article  in,  and  then  brought  the  lid 
down  with  a  terrific  bang  so  as  to  startle  all  in  the  room 
who  possessed  the  sense  of  hearing.  Her  teacher  told  her 
to  take  the  object  out  and  put  it  away  quietly ;  she  again 
complied,  but  gave  an  unearthly  scream.  Now  the  child 
had  performed  the  mechanical  acts  required,  but  she  was 
even  more  rebellious  and  disobedient  than  at  first.  Her 
teacher  wisely  refrained  from  pursuing  the  matter  farther 
at  that  time,  knowing  that  the  child  was  excited  and  angry. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  69 

But  she  made  Laura  understand  that  the  mcident  was  by 
no  means  closed.  By  withholding  every  demonstration  of 
affection  and  confidence  for  two  or  three  days,  the  teacher 
made  her  sensible  of  her  disobedience,  and  finally  caused 
Laura  to  come  to  her  and  beg  forgiveness.  Then,  and 
then  only,  had  genuine  obedience  been  rendered.  Too 
often  the  teacher  is  satisfied  with  mere  mechanical  obedi- 
ence, which,  while  it  must  be  insisted  upon  at  once,  must 
be  followed  by  genuine  submission,  and  this  must  be 
reached  even  though  many  days  may  intervene  before  it  is 
brought  about.  A  quiet  manner,  firmness,  persistence, 
patience,  absence  of  anger,  are  essential  in  securing  this 
kind  of  obedience.  Difficulty  will  often  be  avoided  if  the 
teacher  puts  the  command  in  the  form  of  a  polite  request 
which  does  not  awaken  resistance  or  arouse  anger.  There 
need  be  no  lack  of  firmness  in  this  method  of  approach. 
The  teacher  will  teach  courtesy  by  being  courteous,  and 
the  conveying  of  commands  in  this  way  will  furnish  fre- 
quent and  excellent  opportunities  to  cultivate  this  virtue. 

Nagging.  —  There  must  be  no  nagging  by  the  teacher  if 
the  desired  result  is  to  be  attained.  Constant  harping  upon 
a  child's  weaknesses  or  misdemeanors  will  not  cure  him.  It 
only  aggravates  the  evil,  makes  him  stubborn  and  rebellious, 
and  creates  the  feeling  that  his  teacher  is  prejudiced  against 
him.  I  have  known  teachers  to  make  school  and  its  duties 
intolerable  by  their  persistent  and  merciless  nagging  of  pupils 
who  indeed  may  have  done  wrong.  Such  action  is  worthy 
of  contempt,  and  no  teacher  with  the  true  spirit  will  prac- 
tise it.  The  insubordinate  and  disobedient  child  should  be 
met  alone,  the  evil  of  his  conduct  pointed  out  to  him,  and 
effort  made  to  lead  him  to  the  complete  submission  which 


yO  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

IS  the  sign  of  real  obedience.  Face  to-face  talks  between 
teacher  and  pupil  when  the  fires  of  anger  have  died  out, 
when  the  teacher  can  show  the  genuine  interest  felt  for  the 
erring  child,  and  where  the  child  is  unsupported  by  the 
sympathy  of  his  comrades,  cannot  fail  to  remove  difficulties 
and  do  good. 

School  Discipline  Aims  at  Good  Habits.  —  The  great  pur- 
pose of  the  school  is  to  form  right  habits  in  the  pupils. 
They  should  be  taught  to  do  from  habit  what  is  required 
of  them  —  to  be  quiet  and  obedient,  to  respect  the  rights 
of  others,  to  be  diligent,  thorough  in  school-work,  amena- 
ble to  the  school  regulations,  to  be  and  to  do  good.  This 
thought  should  be  constantly  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher. 
Habit  is  acquired  by  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  act 
under  the  same  conditions.  Evil  habits  are  to  be  sup- 
planted by  good  ones.  If  the  teacher  must  call  attention 
to  every  movement  of  the  child,  acting  as  an  ever-present 
monitor  to  him,  he  relieves  him  of  all  responsibility  and 
takes  the  government  upon  his  o\mi  shoulders.  In  a  gen- 
eral way,  the  teacher  is  responsible  for  the  government  of 
the  school ;  but  if  right  habits  are  formed  in  the  children, 
they  will  become  largely  self-governing.  They  will  do 
ris:ht  because  it  is  their  habit  to  do  so,  and  not  because  the 
eye  of  the  teacher  is  upon  them.  The  school  prepares  for 
life,  and  if  it  fails  to  establish  the  children  in  habits  of 
right  acting  and  right  thinking,  it  fails  in  its  most  import- 
ant duty  towards  them. 

Rules  and  How  to  Make  Them —  While  the  teacher  is  not 

to  begin  with  a  list  of  rules  the  first  day,  as  shown  else- 
where, it  will  be  necessary  to  have  some  regulations  wher- 


SCHOOL   GOViKNMENT  ^f 

ever  a  number  of  people  are  brought  together.  Some  rules 
are  implied,  while  others  must  be  formulated.  Punctual 
and  regular  attendance,  promptness  in  responding  to  sig- 
nals, gentlemanly  behavior,  and  respect  for  the  rights  of 
others,  are  implied  regulations.  Although  attention  must 
frequently  be  called  to  these  in  order  that  pupils  may  not 
forget  their  obligation  to  keep  them,  they  are  regulations, 
that  every  one  understands,  even  if  they  are  not  formally 
stated.  But  formal  rules  also  will  be  necessary  because  of 
the  immaturity,  inexperience,  and  lack  of  judgment  of 
children,  as  well  as  because  some  are  vicious.  It  is  to  the 
making  of  these  regulations  that  I  desire  to  call  special 
attention. 

1.  Do  not  anticipate  an  evil.  —  Many  evils  would  never 
occur  if  they  had  not  been  suggested  by  a  rule.  A  mother, 
upon  going  out  to  spend  an  evening,  called  her  children  about 
her  and  said  :  "  Now,  children,  I  am  going  out,  and  you  will 
be  left  alone.  I  want  you  to  have  a  good  time,  but  don't 
get  into  mischief.  Be  sure  and  not  get  beans  up  your 
noses."  Needless  to  say,  upon  her  return  she  found  all  of 
the  children  trying  to  remove  beans  from  their  noses.  It  is 
not  at  all  likely  that  this  form  of  mischief  would  have  been 
thought  of  had  not  the  mother  suggested  it.  It  often 
occurs,  both  in  the  school  and  in  the  home,  that  over- 
anxiety  on  the  part  of  teacher  or  parent  to  prevent  an 
evil  suggests  it  to  the  children.  It  is  time  enough  to  meet 
an  evil  when  it  shows  itself. 

2.  Give  warning  before  making  a  rule.  —  If  a  wrong 
exists,  call  attention  to  it,  and  lead  the  pupils  to  correct  the 
evil  themselves  if  possible.  Show  them  the  wrong,  that  it 
interferes  with  the  good  order  of  the  sc/iool,  and  that  it 
must  cease.     If   the  pupils    themselves   correct  the  evil, 


72 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


the  end  has  been  accomplished.  If  they  fail  to  do  so, 
and  a  rule  becomes  necessary,  their  attitude  towards 
the  rule  is  not  likely  to  be  hostile.  Their  sense  of 
justice  is  thus  appealed  to,  and  if  they  are  subjected  to 
a  restriction,  the  most  of  the  children  will  realize  the  fair- 
ness of  the  teacher's  procedure  and  will  acquiesce.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  large  part  of  the  school  is 
disposed  to  do  right,  and  the  method  just  detailed  will 
secure  the  co-operation  of  most  of  the  children.  Resist- 
ance, if  any,  will  come  only  from  a  small  minority.  The 
enforcement  of  a  rule  that  appeals  to  the  sense  of  fairness 
of  the  pupils,  and  that  has  been  proved  a  necessity,  is 
comparatively  easy.  Children  love  to  retain  the  good 
opinion  of  their  comrades,  and  the  few  rebellious  ones  will 
be  mightily  influenced  by  the  public  sentiment  of  the 
school.  Thus  the  school  itself  as  a  whole  is  enlisted  in 
the  cause  of  good  order. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  will  find  it  a  serious 
undertaking  to  enforce  an  unpopular,  and,  as  children  are 
very  likely  to  think,  unnecessary  rule,  and  he  will  shrink 
from  attempting  it  a  second  time.  The  plan  of  making  a 
rule  is  as  follows  :  first,  point  out  the  evil  that  exists  ; 
second,  give  the  pupils  warning  that  punishment  will 
follow  if  the  evil  is  not  corrected  —  perhaps  repeat  the 
warning  with  greater  force  if  necessary  ;  finally,  state  the 
rule.  By  this  course  of  procedure  the  teacher  takes  his 
pupils  into  his  confidence,  and  calls  them  to  his  aid  rather 
than  antagonizes  them. 

3.  Be  firm  in  administering  a  rule  wJicn  made. — When 
a  rule  is  really  necessary,  let  its  requirements  be  plainly 
stated,  and  then  hold  the  pupils  to  it.  The  children  must 
not  gain  the  impression  that  because  the  teacher  has  been 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT. 


73 


reluctant  in  making  restrictions  he  will  be  uncertain  in 
carrying  them  out.  The  teacher  must  not  forget  his  own 
rules,  nor  should  he  have  so  many  that  he  or  his  pupils 
will  be  in  danger  of  forgetting  them.  I  shall  show  in 
the  discussion  of  Appeal  to  Honor  that  a  nobler  principle 
than  government  by  rules  should  be  employed  in  the 
management  of  a  school.  Looseness  in  enforcing  rules  is 
disastrous,  and  children  soon  discover  whether  or  not  the 
teacher  means  what  he  says.  Firmness  without  anger, 
persistency  without  nagging,  vigilance  without  spying,  will 
secure  respect  both  for  the  teacher  and  for  the  regulations 
which  he  finds  necessary  to  establish. 

4.  Repeal  a  ride  wJien  it  is  no  longer  necessary. —  Some 
rules  must  be  retained  as  permanent  regulations  of  the 
school.  Others  are  merely  temporary.  When  a  rule  has 
served  its  purpose  and  is  no  longer  necessary,  let  it  be 
formally  withdrawn.  No  rule  should  be  allowed  to  become 
a  "dead  letter." 

Let  me  illustrate  this  point.  Lying  next  to  a  school- 
ground  was  a  vacant  field  upon  which  the  children  were 
allowed  freely  to  play.  This  field  was  finally  ploughed 
and  a  crop  of  wheat  sowed.  Of  course,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  restrict  the  children  in  their  use  of  the  field,  and 
this  was  done  so  effectually  that,  even  though  there  was 
no  dividing-fence,  the  owner  told  the  principal  that  his 
crop  had  not  been  damaged  in  the  least  by  the  pupils,  and 
that  "the  first  svv^ath  of  grain  was  as  heavy  as  any."  After 
the  removal  of  the  crop  there  was  no  longer  any  reason  for 
restriction,  but  the  principal  would  not  allow  the  children 
to  take  possession  of  the  ground  until  the  rule  had  been 
repealed.     He  thus  inculcated  a  respect  for  law  as  such. 

There  are  so  many  laws,  which  long   since  have  lost 


74  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

their  effectiveness,  on  the  statute-books  of  every  State, 
that  even  the  vital  enactments  are  brought  into  disrespect. 
A  law,  whether  of  school  or  State,  should  be  obeyed. 
There  is  great  need  of  cultivating  a  wholesome  respect  for 
law  in  our  country,  and  nowhere  can  this  be  done  so  well 
as  in  the  school  by  means  of  a  rigid  enforcement  of  rules 
that  are  necessary,  and  by  the  repealing  of  those  that  are 
no  longer  useful.  By  pursuing  this  course,  children  will 
learn  respect  for  all  law,  national.  State,  and  municipal. 

Appeal  to  Honor  as  a  Means  of  Discipline.  —  As  soon 
as  children  are  old  enough  to  use  discretion  they  should 
be  trained  to  self-government,  which  is  the  highest  form 
of  discipline.  The  means  of  reaching  this  is  not  through 
government  by  rules,  but  through  a  far  higher  principle, 
that  of  appeal  to  honor.  Many  teachers  misuse  thi? 
term,  employing  the  name  without  applying  the  principle. 
The  mere  use  of  the  name  does  not  prove  that  pupils  are 
being  put  on  their  honor,  I  have  heard  teachers  say, 
"  Now,  children,  I  am  going  to  put  you  on  your  honor," 
when  they  had  not  been  trained  to  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term,  and  when  perhaps  they  were  destitute  of 
honor.  Surely  they  cannot  be  put  on  their  honor  under 
these  circumstances.  They  must  be  taught  what  is  meant 
by  the  expression,  and  trained  to  apply  the  principle.  I 
shall  try  to  show  what  is  meant  by  appeal  to  honor,  and 
indicate  the  manner  of  bringing  children  to  the  point 
where  they  may  be  trusted  to  put  it  in  force.  It  means 
perfect  frankness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  no  sneaking 
or  underhanded  practice,  or  suspicion.  It  does  not  mean 
that  open  measures  may  not  be  employed  to  discover 
wrong-doing,  or  that  punishment  will  not  follow  the  dis- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  75 

covery  of  evil.  It  does  not  mean  that  authority  is  resigned 
by  the  teacher,  or  that  he  yields  his  right  and  duty  to  call 
offenders  to  an  account.  Nor  does  it  mean  that  because 
confidence  may  be  extended  so  far  as  the  teacher  in  his 
judgment  has  found  to  be  wise,  it  must  be  extended  to  all 
matters  of  discipline.  It  must  be  approached  gradually, 
depending  upon  the  moral  conceptions  that  the  children 
already  possess.  The  teacher's  conception  of  appeal  to 
honor  should  be  carefully  explained  to  the  school,  and  the 
limits  within  which  appeal  to  honor  is  to  be  exercised 
definitely  determined.  It  is  not  of  the  slightest  use  to 
attempt  this  form  of  discipline  without  taking  these  pre- 
liminary steps.  Indeed,  to  put  children  to  such  a  test 
without  bringing  them  to  understand  what  is  expected  is  a 
mere  abuse  of  a  noble  principle,  if  not  worse.  It  would 
be  training  them  in  hypocrisy,  and  would  be  degrading 
rather  than  ennobling,  as  appeal  to  honor  should  be  if 
rightly  employed. 

Perhaps  I  can  make  the  point  clear  by  stating  what 
took  place  in  a  school,  and  by  showing  how  it  was  brought 
about.  A  young  principal  was  in  charge  of  a  school  of 
some  four  hundred  children  with  eight  assistant  teachers. 
He  presided  over  a  large  room  which  seated  about  one 
hundred  children  ranging  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  of 
age,  where  he  heard  his  classes  recite.  Whenever  he 
visited  other  rooms  it  was  necessary  to  leave  his  pupils 
alone.  One  day,  after  he  had  been  at  the  head  of  the 
school  for  several  years,  he  left  his  room  and  went  to 
another  part  of  the  building,  leaving  no  one  in  charge. 
After  an  absence  of  perhaps  half  an  hour,  he  returned 
and  found  a  gentleman  sitting  upon  the  platform  waiting 
for  him.     The  visitor  said  :  "  I  have  visited  a  great  many 


^6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

schools,  but  have  found  here  the  best  discipline  I  ever 
saw."  "That  is  very  gratifying  to  me,"  said  the  principal. 
"  What  have  you  seen  ?  "  "  When  I  came  into  this  room," 
replied  the  visitor,  "I  found  everythmg  so  quiet  and 
orderly  that  I  expected  to  find  you  sitting  in  a  seat  some- 
where assisting  a  pupil.  But  I  soon  discovered  that  you 
were  not  here.  I  came  into  the  room  without  announce- 
ment, have  been  sitting  here  fully  twenty  minutes,  and 
there  has  not  been  a  single  disorderly  act,  nor  has  anything 
been  done  that  might  not  have  been  done  had  you  been 
present.  Every  pupil  has  quietly  attended  to  his  own 
business  as  though  it  w^ere  the  only  thing  to  do.  It  is 
most  remarkable  order,  and  I  congratulate  you  most 
heartily."  The  young  man  told  him  that  he  frequently 
left  the  pupils  alone,  expecting  them  to  be  more  careful  of 
their  conduct  in  his  absence  than  in  his  presence,  and  that 
they  rarely  disappointed  him.  He  placed  his  pupils  on 
their  honor,  and  they  were  not  found  wanting. 

Now,  this  result  had  not  been  attained  in  a  day,  but  it 
came  after  long-continued,  careful,  and  patient  training. 
It  was  well  worth  all  it  cost,  for  his  pupils  had  at  last 
grasped  the  idea  that  it  was  their  duty  to  govern  them- 
selves, and  that  they  should  do  it  as  well  when  alone  as 
when  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher.  His  absence  was 
no  signal  for  disorder,  but  only  a  greater  reason  for  good 
order,  because  the  responsibihty  of  it  rested  upon  them. 
It  is  a  good  thing  to  get  people  to  accept  responsibility. 
Many  a  man  has  been  encouraged  to  renewed  exertion  by 
having  responsibilities  laid  upon  him.  Finding  that  others 
have  confidence  in  him,  he  begins  to  have  confidence  in 
himself,  and  that  is  the  first  essential  to  success.  This  is 
one  of  the  strongest  arguments   for  the  employment  of 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  ^-} 

the   principle  of  appeal  to  honor  as  the  basis   of  school 
discipline. 

I  have  given  the  result  obtained  in  a  certain  school  of 
discipline  secured  through  putting  pupils  on  their  honor. 
Perhaps  a  detail  of  the  method  which  was  employed  to 
reach  this  result  will  not  only  make  clear  what  is  meant 
by  this  principle,  but  also  suggest  the  manner  of  attaining 
it.     It  was  as  follows  : 

1 .  Explain  the  meaning  of  appeal  to  lionor.  —  Many 
children,  as  we  have  seen,  have  very  misty  notions  as  to 
what  it  means  to  be  placed  on  their  honor.  They  must 
be  taught  that  it  calls  for  the  exercise  of  their  own  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong ;  that  they  should  behave  as  well  in  the 
teacher's  absence  as  in  his  presence,  if  not  better  ;  that  his 
leaving  the  room  is  not  a  signal  for  mischief. 

2.  Be  gemdne  in  putting  them  on  their  hono7'.  — 
Neither  leave  a  monitor  in  charge,  nor  employ  a  secret 
agent  to  spy  on  their  actions  and  report.  This  will,  at 
the  outset,  defeat  the  purpose.  Indeed,  in  no  sense  would 
the  pupils  be  placed  on  their  honor.  Show  that  your  con- 
fidence is  absolute  so  far  as  the  matter  upon  which  they  are 
trusted  is  concerned.  Better  that  some  mischief  should 
remain  undetected  than  that  a  pupil  be  employed  to  report. 
If  mischief  has  been  done  in  his  absence,  the  wise  and 
watchful  teacher  will  soon  discover  it.  Too  profound  still- 
ness, too  great  diligence  in  study,  accompanied  with  a  covert 
watching  of  the  teacher,  as  well  as  marks  of  disorder  in 
the  schoolroom,  would  at  once  awaken  the  teacher's  sus- 
picion. A  careful  study  of  the  faces  of  the  pupils  will 
almost  invariably  reveal  the  guilty  parties,  who,  when 
discovered,  must  be  summarily  dealt  with. 

3.  Do   not   attempt   too   much  at   once.  —  The   teacher 


78 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


has  certain  ideals  that  he  wishes  his  pupils  to  gain.  They 
must  be  led  up  to  these  ideals  step  by  step.  If  too  much 
is  attempted  at  once,  the  purpose  will  not  be  reached. 
Appeal  to  honor  may  be  an  entirely  new  thought  to 
them,  especially  as  to  its  practical  bearing  upon  school 
life.  It  is,  therefore,  difficult  for  them  to  grasp  the  idea ; 
hence  at  the  outset  the  teacher  must  utilize  this  method 
of  discipline  with  discretion.  If  pupils  have  not  been 
accustomed  to  being  left  alone,  a  few  minutes'  absence  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  is  all  that  should  be  attempted 
upon  the  first  trial.  Children  are  restless  and  prone  to 
mischief.  Too  much  must  not  be  expected  of  them. 
They  should  not  be  tempted  beyond  their  power  of  en- 
durance. Let  the  teacher's  absence  be  taken  as  a  matter 
of  course,  not  calling  for  special  comment  or  inviting  to 
mischief.  The  idea  that  when  the  teacher's  back  is  turned 
the  pupils  must  needs  get  into  disorder  is  wholly  false. 
A  proper  use  of  appeal  to  honor  will  soon  eradicate  that 
idea.  The  time  of  absence  can  gradually  be  extended 
until  the  pupils  can  be  left  alone  as  long  as  desired,  the 
absence  being  considered  as  nothing  unusual,  and  the 
pupils  attending  to  their  work  without  thinking  of  mis- 
chief. 

4.  Do  not  sneak.  —  Children  consider  sneaking  as  des- 
picable, even  as  grown  folks  do.  In  dealing  with  chil- 
dren there  must  be  no  tiptoeing,  no  peeping  through  the 
keyhole,  no  attempt  to  catch  the  children  unawares.  Such 
a  course  destroys  all  thought  of  honor,  because  it  is  dis- 
honorable itself.  If  a  teacher  practises  such  a  means  of 
detection,  he  should  say  nothing  about  honor.  Perfect 
frankness  will  win  the  children's  respect,  and  in  due  time 
make  them  ashamed  of  conduct  out  of  harmony  with  this 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  79 

idea.  The  boys  of  Rugby  could  not  lie  to  Dr.  Arnold 
because  he  would  believe  them.  The  perfect  frankness 
and  genuineness  of  the  man  made  them  ashamed  to  be 
other  than  frank  and  genuine  in  dealing  with  him.  Once 
more,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  most  of  the  pupils  are 
well-disposed,  and  if  the  majority  are  led  to  right-doing  the 
victory  will  soon  be  won. 

5 .  Call  offenders  to  strict  accoimt.  —  An  appeal  to 
honor  by  no  means  excuses  wrong  action.  If  a  guilty 
one  is  discovered,  —  and  a  discovery  is  usually  not  a  diffi- 
cult matter,  —  let  the  punishment  be  sure  and  sufficient. 
Let  the  children  see  that  a  violation  of  your  confidence  is 
treachery,  is  hypocrisy,  is  the  more  grievous  evil  because 
of  the  very  frankness  of  the  teacher.  Therefore  punish- 
ment for  such  betrayal  should  be  more  severe  than  for  the 
same  mischief  committed  when  the  teacher  is  in  the  room. 
An  effective  punishment  for  a  pupil  who  will  not  behave 
when  the  teacher's  back  is  turned,  is  for  the  teacher  to 
take  the  offender  with  him  upon  leaving  the  room  the  next 
time.  Says  the  teacher  :  "  Come,  William,  I  am  going  to 
visit  the  primary  rooms,  and  you  are  to  go  with  me.  I 
can  trust  the  rest  of  the  class,  but  you  have  proved  your- 
self unworthy  of  confidence.  You  cannot  behave  yourself 
without  me ;  you  disturb  the  good  order  and  destroy  the 
good  name  of  my  school,  therefore  I  must  take  you  with 
me."  No  child  will  be  likely  to  go  through  this  experience 
twice,  and  the  whole  room  also  will  take  the  lesson  to  heart. 

6.  Finally,  treat  pupils  as  tJiongJi  honorable  action 
only  is  expected.  —  Suspicion  awakens  evil,  and  engen- 
ders the  spirit  which  makes  suspicion  justifiable.  On  the 
other  hand,  confidence  begets  the  spirit  which  makes  con- 
fidence possible.     The  teacher  should  not  stand  before  his 


8o  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

class  and  advertise  the  fact  that  he  is  going  to  leave  them 
alone  and  wants  them  to  be  good,  unless  it  be  at  first  in 
explaining  appeal  to  honor.  Let  there  be  no  fuss  about 
it,  —  set  the  pupils  at  work,  go  out  of  the  room  without  a 
word  about  order,  and  act  as  though  it  is  understood  and 
expected  that  every  one  will  attend  to  his  own  business. 
Children  can  be  trained  to  do  this ;  they  were  trained  to 
do  it  in  the  school  above  mentioned.  Thus,  the  notion 
among  children  that  the  withdrawal  of  the  teacher  from  the 
room  for  a  few  minutes  is  a  challenge  for  them  to  start 
mischief,  may  be  wholly  eliminated. 

I  have  taken  the  matter  of  leaving  pupils  alone  as  an 
illustration  of  a  method  of  appealing  to  honor.  In  all  mat- 
ters of  discipline  the  same  result  can  be  secured  by  a  like 
method  of  procedure,  until  the  children  become  a  law  unto 
themselves.  The  moral  effect  of  this  is  unmistakable  and 
inestimable.  The  child  is  trained  to  exactly  the  same  prin- 
ciple that  he  ought  to  follow  in  his  later  life,  —  a  principle 
whose  practice  will  prepare  him  for  good  citizenship  and  self- 
controlled  living.  Thus  he  is  under  a  far  broader  law  than 
school  regulations, — the  moral  law,  the  voice  of  his  own  edu- 
cated conscience,  rather  than  the  watchful  eye  of  the  teacher. 
He  is  safer,  for  his  monitor  is  always  with  him,  whereas 
he  and  his  teacher  must  soon  part.  He  will  be  guided  by 
his  moral  consciousness.  Not  that  his  teacher's  wishes 
and  opinions  will  be  ignored  by  him.  On  the  contrary, 
the  teacher  who  has  the  power  to  train  the  child  to  the 
lofty  ideal  that  is  necessary  to  make  appeal  to  honor  effect- 
ive will  command  respect,  and  will  make  impressions  that 
will  be  as  lasting  as  eternity.  Appeal  to  honor  is  the  high- 
est form  of  discipline,  and  every  teacher  should  seek  to 
bring  his  pupils  to  this  ideal. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  8  I 

Use  of  Monitors.  —  Monitors  may  be  used  to  assist  in 
the  mechanical  duties  of  the  school,  such  as  caring  for  the 
blackboards,  distributing  materials  and  books,  looking  after 
shades  and  windows,  etc.  But  they  should  not  be  employed 
either  in  teaching  or  in  disciplining.  Their  use  in  correct- 
ing papers,  even,  is  a  questionable  expedient.  Children 
lack  the  judgment,  the  discretion,  the  fairness,  and  the 
knowledge  necessary  to  correct  each  others'  papers.  The 
burden  of  correcting  papers  is  a  severe  tax  upon  the 
teacher's  time  and  strength,  from  which  there  seems  to  be 
no  escape.  Many  lessons  can  be  taught  better  in  criticising 
papers  than  in  any  other  way.  Indeed,  some  things,  like 
composition  work,  can  be  done  in  no  other  way.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  have  fewer  written  exercises  and  to 
have  them  well  executed,  than  to  have  so  many  that  the 
help  of  pupils  must  be  accepted.  Corrections  made  by 
schoolmates  will  not  command  the  same  respect  as  those 
made  by  the  teacher.  In  matters  of  discipline  it  is  unfair 
to  call  upon  children  to  act  as  monitors,  for  it  subjects  them 
to  the  suspicion  of  their  fellow-pupils  and  makes  them 
unpopular  on  the  one  hand,  and  affords  them  an  opportu- 
nity to  punish  enemies  on  the  other.  Injustice  may  thus  be 
done  to  both  parties.  The  teacher  has  no  right  to  place  a 
child  in  such  a  position,  and  therefore  he  should  never 
assign  any  form  of  discipline  to  a  monitor.  The  teacher 
alone  is  clothed  with  authority,  and  he  cannot  delegate 
this  to  another  who  is  not  clothed  with  like  authority. 

Keeping  Control.  —  By  virtue  of  the  authority  vested  in 
him,  the  teacher  has  a  right  to  control.  He  is  responsible 
for  the  good  order  of  the  school.  Just  how  much  liberty 
he  may  allow  his  pupils  depends  upon  his  own  personality. 


82  A  NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

It  is  like  driving  a  spirited  team.  The  horses  may  rush 
along  at  a  great  pace,  but  if  they  yield  to  pressure  upon 
the  rein,  or  listen  to  a  word  of  command,  there  is  safety,  no 
matter  what  the  speed.  If,  however,  they  take  the  bit  in 
their  teeth  and  resist  the  driver's  arm,  there  is  danger  even 
though  the  pace  is  not  fast,  because  control  is  lost.  Just 
so  in  the  school :  if  the  tightening  of  the  reins  of  government 
by  the  teacher  is  not  followed  by  immediate  submission, 
there  is  danger.  Never  lose  control  of  the  school,  no  mat- 
ter what  the  conditions  are.  The  teacher  must  often 
tighten  the  reins  to  prove  whether  or  not  the  school  is  run- 
ning away  with  him. 

A  Rational  Relation   Between    Teachers   and  Pupils.  — 

Rosenkranz  teaches  that  authority  and  obedience  are 
natural  relations  between  parents  and  children,  between 
teachers  and  pupils.  Gordy  says  of  the  child,^  "  If  his 
parents  and  teachers  are  compelled  by  their  reason  to  re- 
quire of  him  what  they  do,  as  fast  as  his  own  reason 
develops  he  will  become  aware  of  the  fact.  This  will 
make  him  feel  that  all  their  requirements  spring  from  the 
same  source,  and  will  strengthen  his  impulse  towards 
obedience, — and  all  the  more  because  the  conscientious 
parent  or  teacher  will  be  certain  to  be  the  object  of  enthu- 
siastic affection.  But  loving  a  person  who  is  felt  to  be 
guided  by  reason  is  a  long  stride  towards  rational  life ; 
whom  the  child  loves,  he  wishes  to  resemble  ;  and  when  he 
begins  to  be  aware  that  his  mother  is  governed  by  reason, 
not  by  caprice,  he  begins  to  form  a  new  ideal.  When  this 
step  is  taken,  there  is  a  change  in  the  persons  who  are 
playing    important  parts  in   the   drama  of  the  child's  life. 

1  Gordy's  "A  Broader  Elementary  Education,"  p.  292. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  83 

Before  this  the  child  has  been  governed  by  motives  grow- 
ing out  of  his  private  self.  The  mother  and  teacher  have 
been  able  only  to  appeal  to  his  lower  nature  ;  there  has 
been  nothing  else  to  appeal  to.  Now  the  higher  nature 
begins  to  assert  itself  ;  the  rational  self  becomes  the  ally 
of  the  teacher." 

But  this  is  not  all.  Gordy  further  adds,  "  Not  only  so  : 
the  teacher  who  is  guided  by  reason  in  his  dealings  with 
his  pupils  yields  to  its  dictates  because  he  lives  a  rational 
life.  .  .  .  Now  the  teacher  who  lives  a  rational  life  cannot 
fail  to  present  to  the  child's  imitative  nature  a  copy  which 
he  will  have  a  disposition  to  imitate." 

By  following  the  suggestions  of  this  chapter  I  be- 
lieve that  the  teacher  will  secure  wholesome  discipline, 
under  which  the  natural  relations  between  teacher  and 
pupil  will  be  maintained,  the  pupils  largely  governing  them- 
selves, and  the  teacher  winning  for  himself  the  lasting 
respect  and  affection  of  his  pupils  whom  he  has  so  wisely 
guided,  and  who  have  learned  that  he  is  their  real  friend. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

PUNISHMENT. 

It  must  be  stated  at  the  outset  that  the  purpose  of 
punishment  in  the  school  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the 
State.  The  school  punishes  to  correct  and  reform  the  in- 
dividual ;  the  State  punishes  to  avenge  a  wrong,  to  satisfy 
justice,  to  serve  as  an  example  for  others.  The  school 
deals  with  immature,  irresponsible  beings ;  the  State  deals 
with  those  that  are  mature,  that  are  capable  of  weighing 
their  acts,  that  possess  judgment.  Indeed,  so  far  as  the 
State  deals  with  children,  it,  too,  seeks  their  reform,  hence 
the  maintenance  of  reform  schools.  Doubtless  the  State 
should  give  greater  consideration  to  the  question  of  reform 
even  of  its  adult  criminals  than  it  does,  and  there  is  a 
tendency  to  do  so  in  many  sections  of  our  country  ;  but  to 
certain  crimes  there  must  be  attached  fixed  penalties,  and 
the  State  must  use  its  strong  arm  to  check  crime  by 
punishing  offenders  so  as  to  be  a  terror  to  evil-doers. 
This  must  never  be  a  motive  in  dealing  with  young  chil- 
dren. Punishment  will  have  the  effect  of  warning  others, 
without  doubt,  but  the  teacher's  motive  in  administering  it 
should  be  fixed  upon  the  culprit  whose  reformation  is 
sought. 

Definition  of  Punishment.  —  By  punishment  we  mean  a 

\  penalty  imposed  by  some  one  in  authority  for  a  wrong  done. 

Such  penalty  may  be  either  physical  or  mental.     Physical 

84 


PUNISHMENT. 


^5 


punishment  is  inflicted  upon  children  whose  judgment  is 
still  undeveloped,  and  wlien  other  means  of  appeal  have  no 
effect.  The  wisest  man  put  the  matter  pithily  when  he 
said,  "Spare  the  rod  and  spoil  the  child."  Parents  use 
physical  punishment  as  a  means  of  correcting  their  chil- 
dren, for  the  simple  reason  that  children  must  be  taught  to 
mind,  and  are  lacking  in  the  judgment  that  comes  with 
riper  years.  WTiether  physical  punishment  can  be  safely 
abandoned  when  the  child  has  arrived  at  school  age, 
whether  the  child  has  sufificient  discernment,  is  mature 
enough  to  be  free  from  all  form  of  corporal  punishment, 
may  be  seriously  questioned.  If  more  dangerous  forms  of 
punishment  have  been  adopted  in  its  stead,  as  is  undoubt- 
edly often  the  case,  the  last  state  may  be  worse  than  the 
first.  I  purpose  to  discuss  this  question  more  fully  later 
in  this  chapter. 

The  most  terrible  punishment  that  can  be  inflicted  is 
mental,  that  which  touches  the  very  soul.  The  motorman 
who  through  carelessness  sent  his  car  forward  instead  of 
backward,  causing  a  collision  with  a  train  which  resulted  in 
the  loss  of  human  life,  surely  suffered  greater  anguish 
than  any  physical  punishment  could  bring.  Physical  pain 
is  but  temporary,  but  mental  pain  may  last  for  a  lifetime. 
The  teacher  must  not  forget  that  there  are  wounds  that 
are  deeper  than  any  rod  can  inflict,  wounds  that  never  heal, 
such  as  are  caused  by  sarcasm,  unjust  suspicion,  miscon- 
ception, and  treachery. 

Principles  Governing  Punishment I  wish  to  lay  down 

a  number  of  principles  governing  punishment,  which,  had  I 
known  them  earlier  in  life,  would  have  saved  me  from  many 
mistakes. 


86  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

1.  The  least  pimisJiment  that  will  accomplish  the  end 
is  always  the  rigJit  piinishniejit.  —  Seneca  says :  *'  Who 
condemns  quickly,  condemns  willingly  ;  and  who  punishes 
too  much,  punishes  imp'-operly."  Let  not  the  teacher  ask, 
"  What  does  the  child  deserve  for  this  offence  ? "  nor 
"  What  punishment  can  I  mete  out  that  will  be  just  ? "  but 
rather.  "  Will  this  be  sufficient  to  make  him  see  his  error 
and  abstain  from  it  in  the  future  ?  "  or  "  Will  this  secure  his 
reformation  ?  "  If  a  punishment  has  been  imposed  calling 
for  restriction  for  a  given  period,  and  the  desired  end  has 
been  attained  before  the  expiration  of  the  sentence,  let  the 
restriction  be  removed.  If  the  State  can  reduce  a  crimi- 
nal's sentence  on  account  of  good  behavior,  surely  the 
teacher  who  is  dealing  with  young  children  can  do  the 
same  with  them.  On  the  other  hand,  this  does  not  mean 
that  punishment  is  to  be  made  ineffective  by  its  lack  of 
seriousness  or  thoroughness.  The  principle  stated  requires 
that  the  end  shall  be  accomplished.  Anything  less  than 
this  would  be  a  travesty,  and  school  discipline  would  fail 
to  win  respect,  and  might  prove  to  be  the  worst  kind  of 
treatment  that  could  be  administered  to  the  child. 

2.  TJie  ptinisJimeiit  should  be  the  sequence  of  the 
ojfence.  —  This  is  no  new  prmciple.  Basil  the  Great  in  the 
fourth  century  taught  that  every  misdeed  should  be  pun- 
ished in  such  a  way  that  the  punishment  shall  be  an  exer- 
cise in  self-command  and  shall  tend  to  correct  the  fault. 
For  example,  if  a  child  has  lied,  used  profane  language,  or 
been  quarrelsome,  give  him  solitude  and  fasting.  If  he  is 
greedy,  let  him  stand  by  and  see  others  eat,  while  he  re- 
mains hungry.  Rousseau  would  give  his  Emile  perfect 
freedom,  for  the  purpose  of  education  is  to  set  the  individ- 
ual free.     If  he  disobeys,  do  not  punish  him  :  disobedience 


PUNISHMENT.  87 

(vorks  its  own  punishment,  Herbert  Spencer  discusses 
this  principle  at  considerable  length,  and  gives  many  illus- 
trations of  its  practice  in  the  home,  in  school,  and  in  life. 
He  says :  "  Punishments  we  call  them,  in  the  absence  of  a 
better  word ;  for  they  are  not  punishments  in  the  literal 
sense.  They  are  not  artificial  and  unnecessary  inflictions 
of  pain,  but  are  simply  the  beneficent  checks  to  actions 
that  are  at  variance  with  bodily  welfare  —  checks  in  the  ab- 
sence of  which  life  would  quickly  be  destroyed  by  bodily 
injuries.  It  is  the  peculiarity  of  these  penalties,  if  we 
must  so  call  them,  that  they  are  nothing  more  than  the 
unavoidable  consequences  of  the  deeds  which  they  follow  ; 
they  are  nothing  more  than  the  inevitable  reactiotis  entailed 
by  the  child's  actions."  Again,  he  shows  how  the  same 
law  holds  true  later  in  life,  as  follows  :  "After  home  edu- 
cation has  ceased,  and  when  there  are  no  longer  parents 
and  teachers  to  forbid  this  or  that  kind  of  conduct,  there 
comes  into  play  a  discipline  like  that  by  which  the  young 
child  is  taught  its  first  lessons  in  self-guidance.  If  the 
youth  entering  upon  the  business  of  Hfe  idles  away  his 
time,  and  fulfils  slowly  or  unskilfully  the  duties  intrusted  to 
him,  there  by  and  by  follows  the  natural  penalty :  he  is 
discharged,  and  left  to  suffer  for  a  while  the  evils  of  rela- 
tive poverty.  On  the  unpunctual  man,  failing  alike  his 
appointments  of  business  and  pleasure,  there  continually 
falls  the  consequent  inconveniences,  losses,  and  deprivations. 
The  avaricious  tradesman  who  charges  too  high  a  rate  of 
profit  loses  his  customers,  and  so  he  is  checked  in  his 
greediness.  Diminishing  practice  teaches  the  inattentive 
doctor  to  bestow  more  trouble  on  his  patients.  .  .  .  And 
so  on  through  the  life  of  every  citizen."  Further  he  adds  : 
*'  Is  it  not  manifest  that  as  *  ministers  and  interpreters  of 


88  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Nature '  it  is  the  function  of  parents  to  see  that  their 
children  habitually  experience  the  true  consequences  of 
their  conduct  —  the  natural  reactions:  neither  warding 
them  off,  nor  intensifying  them,  nor  putting  artificial 
consequences  in  place  of  them  ?  " 

The  intelligent  teacher  will  have  no  trouble  in  applying 
this  natural  law  to  nearly  all  offences  that  need  punish- 
ment. If  a  child  misbehaves  on  the  playground,  the 
natural  sequence  is  to  deprive  him  of  its  use ;  if  he  is 
quarrelsome  on  the  way  home  from  school,  let  him  be  de- 
tained until  the  others  are  gone ;  if  he  annoys  his  seat- 
mates,  he  should  be  isolated  from  them  ;  if  he  is  guilty  of 
falsehood,  make  him  feel  the  loss  of  the  teacher's  respect 
and  confidence.  Such  just  punishments  will  appeal  to  the 
offender  as  the  natural  sequence  of  his  own  wrong-doing, 
and  will  tend  to  make  him  careful  not  to  repeat  the  offence, 
the  consequences  of  which  fall  upon  his  own  head. 

3.  Pimishtnent  must  aim  to  reach  the  individual  rather 
than  serve  as  an  example  for  other's.  —  We  have  seen  that 
the  purpose  of  punishment  in  the  school  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  State.  But  there  is  too  often  a  ten- 
dency on  the  part  of  young  teachers  to  punish  for  the  sake 
of  example  to  others.  "  If  I  do  not  punish  him,  others  will 
do  the  same  thing,"  reasons  the  teacher.  This  thought 
should  be  dismissed  in  considering  a  case,  and  each  indi- 
vidual child  should  be  treated  for  an  offence  as  if  he  were 
the  only  child  in  the  school.  The  motives  of  the  child, 
the  temptation,  the  home-training,  the  environment,  the 
temperament,  all  must  be  considered,  and  then  the  punish- 
ment that  seems  wise  in  that  particular  case  administered. 
The  same  offence  committed  by  different  pupils  may  merit 
a  different  punishment  in  each  instance,  and  this  plan  allcvs 


PUNISHMENT.  89 

the  teacher  to  choose  and  administer  it.  This  may  subject 
the  teacher  to  the  charge  of  partiality,  but  this  charge  will 
fall  to  the  ground  when  it  is  seen  that  the  spirit  of  fairness 
and  justice  actuates  the  treatment  of  every  child.  The 
pupils  will  soon  learn  that  the  sole  motive  of  the  teacher  is 
their  good,  and  that  the  careful  investigation  entered  upon 
in  each  case  is  a  warrant  for  honesty  of  purpose.  It  need 
not  be  said,  after  the  above  discussion,  that  while  the  State 
must  have  fixed  penalties  attached  to  each  crime,  no 
penalties  must  be  attached  to  each  anticipated  offence 
among  children. 

The  application  of  these  three  general  principles  of  pun- 
ishment will  enable  the  teacher  to  act  justly  and  wisely, 
and  it  will  furnish  a  much  broader  basis  of  discipline  than 
a  set  of  specific  directions  would  do.  Besides  this,  it  per- 
mits each  child  and  each  offence  to  be  considered  upon 
the  individual  merits  of  the  case.  It  may  be  well,  however, 
to  discuss  different  forms  of  punishment,  the  adaptability 
of  which  must  be  left  to  each  teacher. 

Kinds  of  Punishment.  —  In  considering  this  question,  I 
shall  proceed  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  serious  forms 
of  punishment,  though  it  is  admitted  that  owing  to  differ- 
ences in  the  temperament  of  children,  and  in  their  home 
training,  this  order  will  not  always  hold.  To  the  child 
that  is  accustomed  to  blows  at  home,  sometimes  a  word  of 
kindly  and  earnest  reproach  will  have  far  more  effect  than 
blows.  But  the  order  given  may  be  taken  as  fairly  repre- 
senting a  progression  in  the  seriousness  of  forms  of  punish- 
ment. 

I.  Reproof.  —  Reproof  shows  the  displeasure  of  the 
teacher.     It   may  be  by  look  or  word,  private  or  public. 


90  A   r^EW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

individual  or  general.  I  shall  never  forget  receiving  this 
first  form  of  reproof  many  years  ago.  It  was  one  evening 
in  the  little  village  church  of  my  boyhood.  It  was  not  yet 
time  for  the  service  to  begin,  and  a  group  of  young  people 
were  laughing  and  chatting  together,  —  boys  and  girls  of 
about  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  of  age,  —  when  I  made  a 
slighting  allusion  to  the  house  of  God,  quite  thoughtlessly, 
with  no  intention  of  being  sacrilegious.  A  young  lady 
some  years  our  senior,  whom  we  all  loved  and  respected, 
was  sitting  with  us  and  overheard  my  remark.  She  did 
not  utter  a  word,  but  the  look  of  surprise  and  reproach 
that  she  gave  me  was  far  more  effective  than  words.  I 
was  unable  even  to  stammer  an  apology.  Had  she  said  to 
me,  "  What !  you  make  such  an  allusion  to  a  place  set 
apart  for  the  worship  of  the  Almighty  !  I  did  not  expect 
it,  and  it  grieves  me  beyond  measure,"  it  would  not  have 
cut  me  half  so  much  as  her  mere  look  did.  I  have  never 
forgotten  that  reproof,  and  the  grief  and  shame  caused  by 
my  thoughtless  word  remain  indelibly  impressed  upon  my 
memory.  It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  no  such  expression 
has  ever  escaped  my  lips  from  that  time  to  this.  It  was 
the  look  of  Jesus  that  broke  Peter's  heart  after  he  had 
thrice  denied  his  Lord,  and  caused  him  to  go  out  and  weep 
bitter  tears  of  repentance. 

If  a  word  of  reproof  must  be  spoken,  it  should  not  be 
in  anger  or  with  harshness.  Sometimes  it  must  be  given 
with  firmness,  but  with  children  it  should  rarely  be  attended 
with  severity.  And  yet  it  should  be  plain  and  decisive,  so 
as  not  to  be  misunderstood.  There  are  occasions  when 
reproof  should  be  publicly  administered,  but  generally  the 
effect  will  be  better  if  it  be  done  in  private.  The  teacher 
can  come  closer  to  the  child  and  make  him  see  his  wrong 


PUNISHMENT.  9 1 

in  its  true  light,  whereas  in  the  presence  of  other  children 
the  pupil  is  more  apt  to  be  defiant.  Private  reproof  also 
deprives  the  child  of  the  support  of  his  comrades.  Gen- 
eral reproof  should  be  administered  when  a  large  number 
are  involved,  or  when  an  evil  tendency  that  needs  check- 
ing is  noticed  in  the  school.  If,  however,  only  a  few  are 
guilty,  the  reproof  should  be  individual. 

Reproof,  while  the  simplest  form  of  punishment,  is  the 
most  general,  and  in  a  well-disciplined  school  it  will  be 
about  the  only  punishment  needed.  Certainly  for  the 
majority  of  the  school  this  will  be  true. 

2.  Isolation.  —  If  a  child  proves  himself  incapable  of 
associating  with  others  without  infringing  upon  their 
rights,  he  must  be  isolated  from  them.  If  in  his  seat  he 
disturbs  others,  he  must  be  seated  by  himself ;  if  on  the 
playground  he  is  quarrelsome,  or  bullying,  his  right  to  play 
with  others  is  forfeited  ;  if  in  going  home  with  his  com- 
rades he  creates  disturbance,  he  must  remain  until  they 
are  gone.  Isolation  should  not  be  carried  to  the  extent  of 
shutting  a  child  in  a  cellar  or  in  a  dark  room.  A  grievous 
wrong  may  thus  be  done  him  by  rousing  his  fears  or  even 
filling  him  with  terror. 

3.  Withdrawal  of  privileges.  —  In  every  well-regulated 
school  there  are  certain  privileges  that  may  be  granted  to 
the  pupils.  How  many  and  what  these  are  will  depend 
upon  local  circumstances,  upon  the  training  the  children 
have  had,  and  upon  the  power  of  the  teacher  to  keep  con- 
trol. Freedom  to  go  to  the  dictionary,  to  the  waste-bas- 
ket, to  get  a  drink,  to  move  about  the  schoolroom  in  their 
work,  may  generally  be  allowed.  It  is  doubtful  if  these 
privileges  can  be  extended  outside  the  schoolroom.  To 
go  out-of-doors  at  pleasure  offers  too  great  a  temptation 


^2  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT, 

to  children  lacking  in  judgment,  and  mischief  is  likely  to 
follow.  Each  teacher,  however,  will  be  able  to  settle  this 
question  for  himself  in  his  own  school.  Whatever  privi- 
leges are  allowed,  they  must  be  regarded  as  of  great  value  ; 
their  misuse  is  a  most  serious  offence,  because  it  is  a  be- 
trayal of  confidence.  If  their  abuse  is  so  regarded,  the 
withdrawal  of  them  becomes  a  severe  punishment. 

4.  WitJidmzval  of  confidence.  —  Greater  than  any  form 
of  punishment  yet  discussed  is  the  withdrawal  of  confidence 
by  the  teacher.  To  merit  this  the  pupil  must  be  guilty  of 
a  most  grievous  offence,  such  as  l}'ing,  cheating,  stealing, 
deception,  etc.  The  relationship  between  teacher  and 
pupil  should  be  so  close  that  they  have  mutual  confidence 
in  each  other.  When  this  is  true  the  loss  of  the  teacher's 
confidence  will  be  a  very  grave  matter  to  the  pupil,  espe- 
cially as  he  knows  that  the  loss  was  occasioned  by  his  own 
bad  conduct.  When  the  offender  is  made  to  see  the  evil 
of  his  act,  the  way  is  open  for  reformation  ;  and  complete 
confidence  can  be  restored  only  when  complete  reformation 
has  been  brought  about.  The  teacher  will  be  glad  to  ex- 
tend complete  forgiveness  to  the  truly  repentant,  and  this 
will  be  followed  by  the  restoration  of  his  confidence. 

5.  Consult  the  parents.  —  It  is  not  to  be  understood 
that  parents  have  not  been  consulted  up  to  this  point. 
There  should  be  a  perfect  understanding  between  parents 
and  teacher,  not  only  in  regard  to  the  progress  of  the 
pupils  in  their  studies,  but  also  as  to  their  conduct.  Fre- 
quent and  frank  consultations  should  take  place  between 
these  interested  parties,  thereby  saving  misunderstandings 
and  furthering  the  interests  of  the  school.  By  consulting 
parents,  I  mean  that  before  the  next  form  of  punishment 
—  that  of  suspension  —  is  carried  out,  it  is  the  right  of 


PUNISHMENT. 


93 


the  parent  to  know  the  danger  that  is  threatened.  I  have 
illustrated  this  point  in  another  connection  (seep.  243),  and 
wish  further  to  say  that  when  the  conduct  of  a  child  is 
such  that  extreme  measures  are  likely  to  follow,  the  parent 
should  be  notified,  and  his  co-operation  solicited,  in  order, 
perchance,  that  the  child  may  be  saved.  By  this  means  a 
cure  may  be  effected,  the  child  retained  in  school,  and  the 
parent  not  be  humiliated.  If  the  parent  fails  to  give  the 
support  solicited,  and  the  evil  continues,  he  can  find  no 
fault  if  severe  measures  are  employed. 

6,  Snspension.  —  When  a  child,  through  continued  insub- 
ordination, becomes  a  menace  to  good  order,  the  teacher 
has  a  right  to  resort  to  suspension.  This  right  should  not 
be  exercised  too  freely.  The  school  is  for  the  children,  ano 
they  should  be  kept  there  if  possible.  But  there  are  times 
when  the  teacher's  duty  to  his  pupils  demands  the  dismissal 
of  an  offender  from  school.  If  all  other  means  have  been 
tried  without  avail,  if  a  pupil's  conduct  is  inimical  to  gcod 
order,  if  his  moral  life  is  such  as  to  imperil  the  good  mora, 
of  other  children,  it  certainly  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to 
dismiss  him  from  the  school.  We  hear  a  great  deal 
about  "that  bad  boy."  Now,  there  must  be  no  relaxation 
of  effort  to  reform  and  save  the  bad  boy.  The  school  has 
done  a  noble  work  in  saving  many  a  boy  whose  outside 
environment  was  dragging  him  to  destruction.  To  many 
the  school  is  the  only  hope  of  redemption,  and  therefore  its 
glorious  work  in  this  respect  must  go  on.  The  sympathy 
of  the  teacher,  the  example  of  good  children,  the  whole- 
some atmosphere  of  the  school,  the  chaste  environment,  — 
all  these,  and  other  influences  about  the  school,  have  com- 
bined to  awaken  a  desire  in  the  bad  boy  to  become  good, 
and  have  helped  him  to  realize  that  desire.     Blessed  is  the 


94  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

influence  of  the  right  kind  of  a  school-teacher,  and  blessed 
is  the  reforming  power  of  a  school  imbued  with  noble 
ideals. 

But  the  good  boy,  the  many  good  boys  and  girls,  must 
not  be  contaminated  by  the  immoral  and  evil  example  of  a 
vicious  boy.  If  he  cannot  be  reformed  without  endanger- 
ing the  morals  of  others,  the  school  is  no  place  for  him ; 
he  belongs  in  a  reformatory.  I  repeat,  this  is  not  to  be 
interpreted  as  a  lack  of  interest  in  or  abandonment  of  the 
bad  boy  to  his  evil  ways  to  become  a  prey  upon  society ; 
let  the  teacher  do  his  utmost  to  save  such  a  child ;  but  it 
is  a  plea  for  the  good  child,  that  he  may  be  kept  good  ; 
that  he  may  not  be  lost  or  spoiled  through  evil  association. 
The  child  already  good  is  potentially  worth  as  much  to  the 
world  as  the  child  who  is  bad,  but  who  may  become 
good.  Surely  we  must  not  lose  what  already  has  been 
gained,  for  the  uncertainties  of  saving  those  who  are 
evil.  If  parents  have  carefully  brought  up  their  children 
and  trained  them  to  good  habits,  the  school  must  not 
allow  this  good  work  to  be  undone  !  The  school  must 
certainly  stand  for  as  high  morals  as  those  of  the  best 
homes  and  the  community.J  And  so  I  put  in  a  strong 
plea  for  the  preservation  of  the  good  already  attained ; 
for  the  protection  of  children  who  come  from  pure  homes 
and  have  pure  ideals  ;  for  the  maintenance  of  high  moral 
living,  even  if  individuals  who  stand  in  the  way  of  these 
ends  must  be  sacrificed.  A  gentleman  moved  into  a 
town  where  there  were  two  schools,  a  public  and  a  pri- 
vate one.  Beheving  from  principle  in  the  public  school, 
he  sent  his  three  daughters  to  that  institution.  After 
a  few  days,  he  withdrew  them  and  placed  them  m  the 
private  school,  where  his  tuition  bill  was  three   hundred 


PUNISHMENT. 


95 


dollars  a  year.  "My  daughters,"  said  he,  "have  been  sub- 
jected to  vulgar  language  and  indecent  acts  such  as  I 
could  not  allow  under  any  consideration."  I  think  that 
his  rights  as  a  citizen  to  the  free  and  proper  education  of 
his  children  were  infringed  upon  by  the  failure  of  the 
school  to  maintain  a  pure  and  moral  tone.  Those  who 
wilfully  and  persistently  prevent  a  moral  tone  should  be 
removed.  This  must  be  done,  or  the  school  had  better  be 
closed. 

There  are  times  when  suspension  must  be  immediate, 
such  as  when  the  pupil  is  defiant  and  refuses  to  obey, 
when  he  creates  a  disturbance  that  hinders  the  school- 
work  ;  then  he  must  be  dismissed  at  once,  or  the  teacher's 
authority  will  be  lost.  But  in  general,  suspension  should 
take  place  only  after  repeated  warnings,  and  after  parents 
also  have  been  warned.  It  may  be  well  for  the  teacher  to 
keep  a  private  record  of  the  conduct  of  especially  trouble- 
some children,  noting  the  offence  committed,  giving  day 
and  date,  the  punishment  inflicted,  etc.  Children  will 
report  to  their  parents  only  the  last  offence  as  a  cause  of 
suspension.  ■"  I  only  touched  John  Jones  a  little  with  my 
foot,  and  the  teacher  sent  me  home,"  is  the  report.  Now, 
the  teacher's  record  shows  a  long  list  of  offences,  and  his 
kicking  John  Jones  was  the  "  last  straw."  Let  this  record 
be  shown  the  parent,  and  it  will  be  found  to  be  most  con- 
vincing both  to  him  and  to  the  school  trustee.  It  is  there- 
fore an  excellent  protection  to  the  teacher.  It  also  serves 
as  restraint  to  pupils,  who  dislike  to  have  their  offences 
registered.  This  record  should  be  most  private,  and  it 
should  not  be  kept  as  a  future  witness  against  the  men 
and  women  of  later  years. 

When  a  pupil    is   suspended,  both  parent  and   trustee 


^6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

should  be  notified  at  once,  and  reasons  therefor  should  be 
given  to  them.  The  school  trustee  is  the  natural  friend 
of  the  teacher  whom  he  has  employed,  and  is  entitled,  by- 
virtue  of  his  office,  to  learn  about  important  school  matters 
direct  from  the  teacher  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

7.  Expulsioji.  —  In  most  States  the  final  act  of  expulsion 
rests  with  the  board  of  education,  the  teacher  having  the 
right  to  suspend  only.  What  we  have  heretofore  said 
about  suspension  applies  equally  well  here,  the  difference 
being  that  expulsion  is  permanent,  while  suspension  is  tem- 
porary. If  expulsion  is  necessary,  the  child  should  be  sent 
to  a  truant  or  reform  school.  It  often  occurs  that  incorri- 
gible pupils  deliberately  commit  acts  that  will  cause  their 
expulsion,  in  order  that  they  may  escape  going  to  school, 
and  be  unhindered  in  their  vagrancy.  Now,  if  such  dis- 
missal were  followed  by  the  inevitable  commitment  to  an- 
other institution,  where  the  restrictions  were  greater  and 
the  rules  more  rigidly  enforced,  no  child  would  seek  to  be 
expelled.  It  would  also  have  a  most  salutary  influence 
upon  the  discipline  of  the  school.  The  incorrigible  child 
is  dismissed  from  the  school  because  he  is  a  menace  and 
a  nuisance  there,  but  too  often  the  authorities  shirk  their 
duty  to  him  and  to  the  State  by  paying  no  further  atten- 
tion to  him.  He  is  thus  likely  to  become  a  worthless 
vagabond,  a  danger  to  society,  when  he  might  be  saved 
to  usefulness  and  good  citizenship  if  he  were  placed  under 
wholesome  restraint  and  properly  taught.  I  have  shown 
elsewhere  (p.  93)  that  some  pupils  must  not  be  retained 
in  the  school  when  the  good  of  the  school  requires  their 
removal ;  but  the  State  must  see  to  it  that  they  are  prop- 
erly instructed  in  suitable  schools  where  the  idea  of  reform 
may  be  carried  out  before  they  are  fixed    in  their  evil 


PUNISHMENT,  97 

habits.  The  institutions  for  this  purpose  need  not  be 
regarded  as  prisons  or  as  penal  institutions,  but  as  schools, 
to  attend  which  does  not  carry  a  mark  of  shame  or  degra- 
dation. It  is  from  this  class  of  incorrigible  children  who 
cannot  be  kept  in  the  school,  and  who  are  left  free  to 
spend  their  time  in  idleness  and  vagabondage,  that  the 
ranks  of  criminals  are  augmented ;  and  the  authorities 
make  a  serious  mistake  in  not  properly  taking  care  of  in- 
tractable pupils  when  they  are  dismissed  from  the  public 
school. 

Both  suspension  and  expulsion  should  be  applied  very 
rarely,  but  when  the  good  of  the  school  demands  them, 
because  of  continued  disobedience  or  immoral  example  on 
the  part  of  a  pupil,  they  should  be  enforced  without  fear 
or  favor. 

8.  Corporal  pimisJmic7it.  —  Many  States  of  the  Union 
forbid  corporal  punishment  in  the  schools.  Wherever  this 
is  true,  it  only  remains  for  the  teacher  faithfully  to  obey 
the  law.  The  usual  interpretation  of  the  statute  is  that 
it  refers  to  the  use  of  the  rod,  and  many  teachers,  there- 
fore, employ  other  forms  of  corporal  punishment  in  order 
to  secure  obedience.  It  may  be  remarked  that  some  of 
the  forms  of  punishment  adopted  are  far  more  dangerous 
and  humiliating  than  the  use  of  the  rod.  Pulling  the  hair 
or  ears,  slapping  the  face,  jerking  or  shaking,  surely  are 
corporal  punishment^  and  all  are  worse  than  a  reasonable 
use  of  the  rod.  Even  standing  upon  the  floor,  staying 
after  school,  writing  long  lists  of  words,  are  inflictions  of 
bodily  pain.  When  the  rod  was  abolished  many  teachers 
resorted  to  far  more  severe  and  humiliating  punishments, 
such  as  sarcasm,  ridicule,  scolding,  giving  memory  tasks, 
requiring   long  written    exercises,  etc.     From    an  ethical 


9$  A   NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

Standpoint,  these  expedients  can  work  immeasurable  and 
lasting  harm,  while  physical  chastisement  with  little  chil- 
dren has  the  effect  of  bringing  them  to  an  immediate  sense 
of  their  wrong-doing,  and  does  not  leave  a  permanent  sting. 
Few  who  were  brought  up  a  generation  ago,  when  the  rod 
was  used  in  the  home  and  the  school,  retain  bitter  feelings 
towards  those  who  administered  it,  unless  the  punishment 
was  conspicuously  unjust.  But  the  biting  word,  the  vin- 
dictive manner,  the  vitriolic  sarcasm,  left  a  deep  impression 
that  it  is  impossible  to  eradicate. 

Many  hold  that  in  certain  rare  cases  the  rod  is  the 
natural  and  humane  form  of  punishment,  both  in  the  home 
and  in  the  school,  with  young  children  who  still  lack  the 
judgment  to  weigh  the  consequences  of  a  wrong  deed,  and 
to  whom  the  appeal  of  reason  cannot  yet  be  made ;  that  it 
is  far  better  to  bring  them  to  obedience  and  respect  for 
law  by  this  means  than  to  temporize  and  compromise  with 
them,  or  turn  them  upon  the  street. 

Many  children  never  learn  obedience  in  the  home,  they 
are  not  brought  into  submission  in  the  school,  and  thus 
they  go  out  into  life  with  an  impression  that  there  is  no 
authority  which  they  must  obey,  that  they  are  a  law  unto 
themselves.  It  is  true  that  the  great  majority  of  children 
in  the  school  recognize  authority  and  yield  compliance  to 
its  requirements.  But  what  about  the  dangerous  minority 
in  the  school  and  in  the  State  for  whom  penal  laws  are 
made  ?  It  is  they  who  cause  an.xiety,  who  test  the 
strength  of  the  law,  and  not  the  majority.  If  they  do  not 
learn  to  respect  authority,  they  will  furnish  recruits  to  the 
great  army  of  criminals.  Better  far  for  the  child  to  learn 
the  lesson  of  obedience  in  the  home  or  in  the  school  than 
to  learn  it  through  the  rigid,  stern,  and  relentless  authority 


PUNISHMENT. 


99 


of  the  State,  which  is  strong  enough  to  compel  submission 
behind  its  prison  doors. 

In  States  and  communities  where  corporal  punishment 
is  not  prohibited  by  law,  its  use  should  be  hedged  about 
with  every  legal  precaution.  Teachers  should  understand, 
as  I  have  already  said,  that  pulling  the  ears,  slapping,  or 
"shaking  up  "  are  forms  of  corporal  punishment  that  are 
not  to  be  tolerated.  There  must  be  no  brutality  in  our 
schools.  The  fact  that  the  old-time,  brutal  forms  of  pun- 
ishment have  been  to  a  large  degree  abandoned  is  an  evi- 
dence of  a  more  humane  temper  and  more  civilized  methods 
of  discipline. 

Where  corporal  punishment  is  allowed,  let  the  teacher 
who  abuses  its  exercise  be  punished.  Let  every  case  of 
whipping  be  reported  at  once  to  the  school  board  and  to 
the  parents,  the  report  giving  the  causes  that  led  up  to  the 
chastisement,  and  specifying  the  kind  and  amount  of  pun- 
ishment inflicted,  and  let  a  record  of  the  occurrence  be  kept. 
A  teacher  who  is  required  to  do  this  would  be  sufficiently 
restrained,  for  he  would  know  that  a  too  frequent  use  of 
the  rod  would  be  a  confession  of  weakness  and  would  sub- 
ject him  to  criticism. 

The  result  would  be  that  the  rod  would  be  seldom  used, 
and  only  as  a  final  resort ;  and  ultimately  it  might  be  ex- 
pected that  its  total  abandonment  would  follow,  even 
where  it  is  now  permitted.  The  sentiment  of  the  public, 
the  laws  that  exist,  and  the  decisions  of  the  courts  abun- 
dantly support  the  teacher  in  the  maintenance  of  discipline. 
If  a  child  is  not  amenable  to  such  discipline  as  is  neces- 
sary for  the  good  order  of  the  school,  he  must  be  removed. 
Children  who  come  to  school  nuist  behave  themselves,  and 
where  the  teacher's  authority  is   challenged  by   such   an 


lOO  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

insolent  expression  as,  —  "  You  dare  not  touch  me ;  it's 
against  the  law,"  other  means  than  the  rod,  and  efficient 
ones,  can  be  employed,  the  final  means  being  dismissal  from 
the  school.  Thus  is  made  possible  the  enforcement  of  the 
wholesome  and  implicit  obedience  which  is  so  essential  to 
good  order  in  the  school,  and  so  vital  m  the  preparation 
for  good  citizenship. 

I  have  attempted  to  present  the  different  views  upon 
this  important  subject.  I  have  only  to  add  that  in  States 
and  communities  where  the  law  forbids  it,  no  teacher 
should  employ  coqDoral  punishment  in  any  form,  as  a 
means  of  discipline.  Even  though  the  parent  may  give 
his  consent  to  its  infliction,  the  teacher  should  not  accept 
such  a  responsibility,  for  the  law  of  the  State  is  higher 
than  the  parent's  will,  and  his  consent  that  the  law  should 
be  violated  cannot  be  valid  justification  to  the  teacher. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE   TREATMENT   OF   SCHOOL   EVILS.l 

There  are  certain  evils  connected  with  every  school 
that  tax  the  ingenuity  and  try  the  patience  of  the  teacher. 
Some  of  these  are  incident  to  school  life  merely,  while 
others  are  of  vital  importance  in  the  formation  of  good 
character.  It  is  proposed  in  this  chapter  to  point  out  the 
most  glaring  of  these  evils,  and  to  suggest  the  means  of 
eradicating  them. 

I .  Carelessness.  —  Slovenly  dress,  untidy  personal  habits, 
disorder  about  the  desk,  soiled  and  uncovered  text-books, 
lack  of  neatness  in  school-work,  whether  handed  in  or 
placed  on  the  blackboard,  are  some  of  the  many  forms  of 
carelessness  in  the  school.  Very  often  home  environment 
is  responsible  for  these  evils  in  children,  but  this  does  not 
excuse  the  teacher  from  trying  to  remove  these  habits  and 
to  establish  good  ones  in  their  stead.  One  of  the  chief 
glories  of  our  public  schools  is  that  pupils  are  developed 
into  noble  manhood  and  womanhood  however  unfavorable 
their  home  conditions.  Many  children  accustomed  to 
squalor  and  filth,  often  trained  to  vicious  habits,  surrounded 

1  The  topics  treated  in  this  chapter  might  well  be  considered  as  sub- 
heads under  the  principle  already  enunciated,  namely,  that  the  punishment 
should  be  the  natural  sequence  of  the  offence.  The  importance  of  these 
topics,  however,  is  such  that  I  deem  it  advisable  to  devote  a  chapter  to 
them. 


I02  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

in  their  home  life  by  every  form  of  degradation  and  sin, 
through  the  wise  leadership  and  patient  direction  of  the 
teacher  are  brought  to  throw  off  their  home  habits  and 
adopt  those  of  decent  society.  The  example  of  their 
schoolmates  also  is  very  effective  in  bringing  about  this 
result.  Happy  the  condition  of  a  school  when  the  teacher 
has  succeeded  in  making  cleanliness  of  person  and  neat- 
ness of  dress  a  popular  sentiment.  Inexpensive  and  neat 
apparel  is  within  the  reach  of  every  American  child,  and  I 
know  of  no  prettier  sight  than  a  classroom  full  of  tidily 
dressed,  bright -faced,  happy  little  children. 

"What  are  you  going  to  do  with  that  paper.?"  was 
asked  of  a  boy  who  held  in  his  hand  a  scrap  of  dirty  paper 
containing  some  straggling  arithmetic  work.  "  Why,  hand 
it  in  to  my  teacher,"  was  the  reply.  "  Do  you  mean  to 
tell  me  that  your  teacher  will  accept  that?''  pursued  his 
questioner.  The  boy  seemed  for  the  first  time  to  realize 
that  such  work  was  unfit  to  present  to  his  teacher. 
Evidently  the  teacher  had  failed  in  her  duty,  else  it  would 
have  been  impossible  for  him  to  offer  such  disreputable 
work.  Careless  work  should  be  rejected  at  once,  whether 
it  be  work  handed  in,  blackboard  exercises,  oral  recitation, 
or  whatever  the  task.  The  only  way  to  cure  carelessness 
is  by  constant  watchfulness  and  firmness,  and  by  never 
accepting  anything  less  than  the  child's  best  endeavor. 
The  correction  of  this  evil  is  of  such  importance  to  success 
in  life  that  the  teacher  must  persist  in  combating  the  evil 
until  habits  of  tidiness  and  carefulness  are  established. 

2.  Laziness.  —  "  There  never  was  such  a  thing  as  a  lazy 
child  born  on  earth,"  says  Col.  Parker.  All  young  life  is 
full  of  activity  ;  and  if  a  child   is  not  active,  will  neither 


THE   TREATMENT   OF   SCHOOL   EVILS. 


103 


play  nor  work,  one  may  be  sure  that  he  is  ill  either  in  body 
or  mind.  Often  the  child  that  is  indolent  with  his  school- 
work  is  active  enough  on  the  playground;  he  is  not  there- 
fore altogether  idle.  While  there  may  be  no  absolute 
laziness,  it  is  certain  that  all  men  are  relatively  lazy ;  that 
is,  there  are  some  things  that  they  do  not  like  to  do,  and 
will  escape  doing  if  possible.  The  mathematical  expert 
might  soon  lay  down  the  spade  on  a  hot  August  day,  while 
he  would  work  half  the  night  over  an  abstruse  problem. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  man  inured  to  hard  physical  toil 
would  labor  in  the  ditch  the  whole  day  without  ceasing,  but 
would  fall  asleep  in  a  few  minutes  over  the  problem. 
Now,  each  might  be  said  to  be  lazy  in  one  field  and 
diligent  enough  in  another. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  utilize  the  present 
interest  of  the  child,  to  lead  him  in  to  other  interests 
with  which  he  must  become  acquainted.  It  does  not 
follow  that  because  a  child  does  not  like  to  do  a  thing  he 
is  to  be  excused  from  doing  it.  Tasks  must  be  performed, 
and  one  of  the  most  valuable  lessons  in  life  is  to  learn  to 
do  what  ought  to  be  done,  regardless  of  personal  inclina- 
tion. Locke  says,  "The  foundation  of  all  virtue  consists 
in  following  the  dictates  of  reason  even  though  appetite 
lead  the  other  way."  Moreover,  it  often  occurs  that  through 
doing  a  required  and,  it  may  be,  unpleasant  task,  one  comes 
to  like  what  has  been  held  in  aversion  because  it  was  not 
understood  or  appreciated.  In  every  course  of  study  there 
are  subjects  that  the  student  would  gladly  omit,  but  he 
cannot  do  so  if  he  is  to  secure  a  diploma  at  the  end  of  the 
course.  How  often  do  the  dreaded  subjects  become  a 
delight  when  they  are  mastered  and  their  value  appreci- 
ated !     There  is  no  royal  road  to  learning,  and  the  wisdom 


I04 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


of  educators  of  many  generations  as  outlined  in  the  course 
of  study,  and  also  that  of  the  teacher,  must  give  direction 
to  the  pupil's  study.  His  own  whims,  or  his  indolent 
desire  to  proceed  along  the  line  of  the  least  resistance, 
must  be  disregarded. 

The  treatment  of  this  question  requires  great  insight 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Having  studied  the  child's 
interests,  and  discovered  his  favorite  employment,  the 
teacher  must  utilize  this  to  lead  him  to  do  work  which, 
perhaps,  he  does  not  like  but  ought  to  do.  Thus,  if  a  boy 
is  fond  of  drawing,  give  him  special  privileges  in  that  on 
condition  that  he  do  some  other  work  for  which  he  has 
less  liking.  If  he  wants  to  devote  all  his  time  to  arith- 
metic, as  large  boys  in  the  country  who  can  attend  school 
only  for  the  winter  months  often  wish  to  do,  show  him 
that  he  cannot  profitably  spend  all  his  time  on  one  subject, 
and  that  without  loss  to  his  arithmetic  work,  he  can  also 
pursue  other  studies. 

Many  of  the  great  geniuses  of  the  world  have  been  called 
lazy.  The  father  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  wrote  on  one  of 
his  son's  drawings,  "  Done  by  Joshua  out  of  pure  idle- 
ness." Turner,  the  greatest  of  landscape  painters,  was 
intended  for  a  barber ;  Schiller,  the  great  German  poet, 
was  destined  for  a  surgeon  ;  Galileo  was  intended  for  a 
physician  ;  Handel  was  set  apart  for  a  lawyer  ;  James 
Watt  was  scolded  by  his  grandmother  because  he  was 
too  lazy  to  do  anything  but  watch  the  steam  in  the  tea- 
kettle ;  Darwin  was  considered  stupid.  Each  of  these 
men  would  be  called  lazy  in  the  common  acceptance  of 
the  term.  Therefore,  the  teacher  must  not  despair  of 
the  lazy  child,  but  seek  to  discover  his  natural  bent,  and 
through  that  lead  him  to  undertake  the  mastery  of  distaste- 


THE   TREATMENT   OF   SCHOOL   EVILS.  105 

ful  work  which   he   must   not    be   allowed  to   neglect   or 
escape. 

3.  Tardiness.  —  Want  of  punctuality  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  of  school  evils.  The  fault  often  lies  with  the 
home,  where  the  late  breakfast,  indifference  or  lack  of 
appreciation  of  the  importance  of  punctuality,  or  a  fail- 
ure to  send  the  children  in  time,  causes  tardiness.  There 
are  many  devices  that  can  be  employed  to  correct  this  evil, 
such  as  roll  of  honor,  interesting  opening  exercises,  class 
banner,  early  dismissal  on  Friday  afternoon,  awakening 
class  rivalry,  etc.  While  these  may  be  unobjectionable 
if  properly  used,  they  are  apt  to  be  temporary  in  their 
effect.  They  are  based  on  the  principle  of  rewarding  for 
the  performance  of  duty.  Then,  too,  punishments  are 
inflicted,  such  as,  compelling  delinquents  to  make  up  lost 
time,  to  go  home  for  an  excuse,  to  write  long  lists  of 
words,  to  commit  poetry  to  memory,  etc.  Some  of  these 
punishments  surely  are  not  a  sequence  of  the  offence,  and 
others  produce  an  evil  effect  upon  the  child  in  creating  a 
dislike  for  the  means  employed  in  his  punishment.  Thus, 
a  hatred  for  poetry  or  material  committed  to  memory 
might  be  engendered  because  it  is  used  as  a  means  of 
punishment. 

Requiring  an  excuse  from  home  serves  to  inform  parents 
of  the  delinquency  of  their  children,  but  it  is  often  regarded 
by  them  as  a  nuisance,  while  some  parents  will  sign  excuses 
for  trivial  causes  or  for  none  at  all.  Class  rivalry  is  some- 
times carried  so  far  as  to  compel  pupils  who  are  late  to 
return  home,  they  preferring  to  be  absent  for  the  session 
rather  than  lower  the  standing  of  their  class.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  absence  for  a  whole  session  is  a  worse  e\'il 


Io6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

than  a  few  minutes'  tardiness.  Teachers  sometimes  re- 
quire tardy  pupils  to  write  the  word  "  tardy  "  five  hundred 
times  ;  again,  doors  are  locked  at  nine  o'clock,  and  pupils 
who  are  late  without  a  written  excuse  are  required  to  re- 
turn home  and  get  one,  no  matter  how  far  away  they  may 
live  or  what  the  weather  may  be.  Of  course,  by  the  latter 
means  the  teacher  can  secure  one  hundred  per  cent  in 
punctuality,  but  there  is  neither  honesty,  justice,  nor 
wisdom  in  such  a  practice.  When  the  prevention  of  tardi- 
ness creates  a  greater  evil,  the  sooner  the  measures 
employed  are  abandoned  the  better. 

While  certain  devices  and  forms  of  punishment  may  be 
employed  in  correcting  the  evil  of  tardiness,  the  teacher 
must  seek  a  more  fundamental  principle  in  order  effect- 
ually to  cope  with  it.  First  of  all,  the  children  must  be 
taught  the  moral  wrong  of  want  of  punctuality.  Many  do 
not  think  that  being  even  five  minutes  late  makes  any  very 
great  difference.  They  must  be  shown  that  they  thus 
infringe  upon  the  rights  of  their  schoolmates,  that  they 
cause  disturbance  and  loss  of  time  whenever  they  come 
late.  Their  tardiness  is  not  merely  a  personal  matter  ;  it 
affects  the  rest  of  the  school,  and  therefore  there  is  a 
moral  side  to  the  question  which  should  be  brought  home 
to  the  children.  In  the  next  place,  there  is  the  business 
view.  Examples  should  be  given  showing  how  business 
men  regard  want  of  punctuality  —  examples  of  the  require- 
ments of  boards  of  directors  of  great  enterprises,  of 
the  demands  of  business  houses  and  factories,  should 
be  furnished  ;  historical  incidents  in  which  great  events 
have  turned  upon  a  few  minutes'  delay,  as  instanced  by 
an  army  corps  failing  to  be  on  time.  Abundant  illus- 
trations will  occur  to  the  teacher,  and  the  importance  of 


THE   TREATMENT    OF    SCHOOL   EVILS.  107 

punctuality  can  thus  be  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the 
children. 

Let  the  children  ask  their  fathers  what  penalty  they 
must  pay  in  case  they  are  ten  minutes  late  at  the  factory, 
and  thus  bring  the  parents  to  see  the  importance  of  the 
lesson  in  punctuality  which  the  school  is  trying  to  teach 
their  children.  This  brings  the  question  to  the  moral  and 
business  basis  that  should  be  at  the  foundation  of  the 
child's  habit  of  punctuality.  It  will  serve  to  make  him 
punctual  from  a  sense  of  right  and  not  for  superficial 
reasons,  and  the  habit  will  follow  him,  not  only  through  his 
school  years,  but  also  through  life.  I  do  not  condemn  the 
employment  of  devices  as  a  temporary  means  to  an  end, 
but  plead  for  instruction  in  the  fundamental  principles, 
and  in  the  reasons  for  punctuality. 

4.  Irregularity  in  Attendance.  —  Since  the  ratio  of  aver- 
age daily  attendance  in  our  common  schools  is  less  than 
seventy  per  cent  of  the  enrolment  in  the  same,^  it  will 
be  seen  that  irregularity  is  a  very  serious  evil.  It  is  but 
fair  to  admit,  however,  that  under  "enrolment  "  are  in- 
cluded all  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen 
who  attend  school  any  time  during  the  year.  Still,  many 
parents  hold  to  the  right  of  taking  their  children  out  of 
school  at  pleasure  to  assist  at  home,  to  help  support  the 
family,  to  make  pleasure-trips,  and  for  other  unnecessary 
causes,  and  this  occasions  far  more  irregularity  than  is 
necessary.  Aside  from  trivial  causes,  there  is  the  more 
serious  excuse,  that  of  poverty  at  home  and  the  need  of 
the  child's  earnings  for  the  support  of  the  family.     It  may 

1  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  reports  68,5  per 
cent  for  the  year  1S99-1900. 


I08  A   NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

be  said  that  the  child's  right  to  an  education  is  supreme, 
and  the  parent  must  not  interfere  with  that  right.  It 
may  also  be  added  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  State  to  pro- 
tect the  child  in  that  right.  By  the  enactment  and  en- 
forcement of  factory  laws  concerning  child  labor,  and  by 
its  laws  of  compulsory  attendance  at  school,  the  State 
already  recognizes  its  duty  to  the  child.  The  trouble  is 
that  too  often  the  State  fails  effectively  to  enforce  these 
laws.  It  were  better  for  its  own  protection  and  as  an 
economic  measure  that  the  State  should  enforce  regularity 
of  attendance,  even  though  it  might  be  necessary  to  assist 
pecuniarily  the  family  that  is  obliged  to  depend  upon  the 
earnings  of  a  child,  rather  than  have  the  child  deprived  of 
school  privileges.  One  needs  but  to  refer  to  the  notorious 
Jukes  family  to  illustrate  the  point.^ 

The  State  should  require  regular  attendance  of  every 
child  from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age  for  every  day 
that  the  school  is  in  session.  The  enforcement  of  the  law 
should  not  be  left  optional  with  school  boards,  but  it  should 
be  obligatory  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  the  apportion- 
ment of  school  moneys  from  the  State  to  the  district  for 
non-enforcement.  Thus,  instead  of  finding  the  community 
arrayed  against  such  a  law,  the  board  would  find  them 
watchful  in  its  strict  enforcement  in  order  to  avoid  the  loss 
of  the  State  school  funds,  which  would  throw  the  heavy 
burden  of  the  support  of  the  school  upon  their  own 
pockets. 

But  what  shall  the  teacher  do  to  correct  irregularity  in 

1  One  Jukes,  who  grew  up  in  ignorance  and  crime,  together  with  his 
descendants,  some  twelve  hundred  in  number,  cost  the  State  over  $1,250,000 
in  trials,  imprisonments,  pauper  charges,  etc. ;  that  is,  over  ^1,000  each  for 

every  member  of  his  family. 


THE   TREATMENT   OF   SCHOOL   EVILS.  1 09 

the  absence  of  an  efficient  compulsory  law  ?  Much,  cer- 
tainly, can  be  done.  "  Make  the  school  so  interesting  and 
attractive  that  the  pupils  will  desire  to  come,"  says  one. 
This  is  a  good  theory  that  will  work  with  a  large  part  of 
the  pupils,  and  tend  to  keep  them  more  regularly  at  school. 
It  will  not  work  with  the  habitual  truant  who  does  not 
come  often  enough  to  school  to  catch  its  spirit,  and  who  — 
make  the  school  never  so  interesting  —  finds  more  fun  in 
fishing,  in  baseball,  or  in  the  circus.  You  must  catch  your 
boy  before  you  can  interest  him  in  school,  and  catch  him 
long  enough  to  break  up  his  habit  of  truancy.  So,  while 
the  theory  of  making  the  school  attractive  sounds  well,  it 
fails  to  reach  those  who  most  need  to  be  reached.  These 
can  be  influenced  only  by  compulsory  laws  thoroughly 
carried  out.  Many  of  the  devices  mentioned  in  the  treat- 
ment of  tardiness  —  such  as  the  roll  of  honor,  class  spirit, 
banners,  early  dismissal,  excuses  from  parents  —  can  be 
employed  in  curing  irregularity.  But  I  think  we  must  go 
deeper  for  an  efficient  remedy,  always  keeping  in  mind  the 
energetic  action  of  the  school  board  in  carrying  out  the 
law.  Once  more,  the  teacher  must  appeal  to  his  pupils 
from  a  moral  and  from  a  business  standpoint.  Should  the 
child  say,  "  If  I  am  absent  it  is  my  loss,  and  it  is  no  one 
else's  business,"  he  should  be  shown  the  utter  fallacy  of  this 
position.  Absence  from  school  is  a  detriment  not  only  to 
the  delinquent,  but  also  to  the  whole  class.  The  rate  of 
progress  in  a  study  can  only  be  such  as  the  class  as  a 
whole  can  sustain,  and  any  dead  weight,  whether  it  be 
caused  by  dulness  or  much  absence,  serves  to  retard  prog- 
ress. Now,  justifiable  absence,  such  as  that  caused  by 
illness,  can  be  borne  cheerfully  by  both  teacher  and  pupils  ; 
but  unnecessary  absence  works  an  injustice  to  those  who 


no  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

have  been  regular,  and  the  offender  should  be  made  to  see 
this  fact.  Thus  the  moral  aspect  should  be  presented  and 
explamed,  and  the  children  taught  that  they  must  not 
encroach  upon  the  rights  of  others. 

In  business  affairs,  irregularity  on  the  part  of  employees 
leads  to  their  discharge.  No  merchant  or  manufacturer 
will  keep  in  his  service  a  man  who  ''annot  be  relied  upon 
to  be  regularly  in  his  place.  This  view  of  the  matter 
should  be  presented  to  parents  who  often  think  that  absence 
from  school  for  a  day  or  two  does  not  matter  with  their 
children,  but  who  admit  that  a  similar  absence  in  business 
would  make  a  great  difference.  If  the  future  man  is  to  be 
steady  and  faithful  in  doing  his  duty  ;  if  he  is  to  be  reliable 
and  trustworthy ;  if  he  is  to  be  free  from  the  shiftlessness 
that  characterizes  the  tramp,  —  he  must  form  right  habits 
in  childhood,  and  there  is  nothing  like  regularity  of  school 
attendance  to  establish  these  habits.  Let  the  teacher  util- 
ize every  suitable  device  to  secure  this  end,  and  let  the 
school  authorities  sustain  him  by  the  employment  of  every 
lesfitimate  means  at  their  command,  and  there  will  be  a 
^reat  improvement  in  school  attendance  —  and,  because  of 
this,  also  far  more  efficient  school-work. 

5.   Tale-bearing Little    children   are   apt    to  be  too 

ready  to  tattle  about  others.  This  habit  will  sometimes  be 
checked  by  ignoring  it,  and  sometimes  reproof  must  be  ad- 
ministered. Older  children  usually  go  to  the  other  extreme, 
and  refuse  to  "  tell  on  "  their  comrades,  under  any  and  all 
circumstances.  They  have  no  conception  of  the  difference 
between  tattling  and  testifying.  This  distinction  should  be 
made  clear  to  them.  Tattling  is  telling  things  that  are 
none  of  one's  business  for  the  sake  of  bringing  others  into 


THE   TREATMENT    OF    SCHOOL    EVILS.  I  I  I 

disgrace.  Testifying  is  giving  evidence  to  some  one  in 
authority  for  the  sake  of  fixing  guilt  where  it  belongs,  and 
in  order  to  serve  the  ends  of  justice.  Children  should  be 
taught  that  to  report  an  evil  committed  against  themselves 
may  be  a  means  of  self-defence  and  not  be  tattling.  Thus, 
if  fighting  is  forbidden  and  a  boy  is  hectored  by  others,  he 
must  either  break  the  rule  and  fight,  or  report  to  the 
teacher.  If  he  chooses  the  latter  course,  he  shows  his 
respect  for  law,  and  employs  the  only  means  he  has  to 
secure  relief.  Or,  if  a  child  has  lost  an  article  by  theft  and 
if  he  discovers  the  guilty  party,  to  expose  him  would  not 
be  tattling. 

When  the  good  of  the  whole  school  is  at  stake,  to 
report  a  known  evil  should  not  be  regarded  as  tattling, 
for  all  are  interested  in  the  reputation  of  the  school 
—  it  involves  the  interests  of  all  the  pupils.  Two 
young  ladies  in  a  boarding-school  once  went  to  the  princi- 
pal and  told  him  hesitatingly  that  some  of  the  girls  were 
betraying  his  confidence,  and  that  their  acts  not  only 
affected  the  good  name  of  the  school,  but  also  endangered 
the  reputation  of  the  two  guilty  young  ladies.  They  felt 
that  it  was  their  duty  to  the  school,  to  the  offending  girls, 
who  were  their  friends,  to  the  principal  who  had  trusted 
them,  and  to  themxselves,  to  call  the  attention  of  the  prin- 
cipal to  the  wrong  being  perpetrated.  Now,  these  young 
ladies  were  not  mischief-makers,  not  tattlers.  They 
showed  the  greatest  moral  courage  and  sense  of  responsibil- 
ity by  the  course  they  took,  and  they  won  the  highest 
respect  of  their  principal.  At  the  same  time  they  saved 
their  friends  from  ultimate  expulsion  and  their  school  from 
disgrace.  This  high  sense  of  honor  should  be  cultivated 
among  young  people,  and  they  should  be  taught  that  always 


112  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

to  refuse  to  tell  against  a  comrade,  no  matter  what  the 
offence,  is  not  only  vicious  in  principle,  but  may  also  work 
evil  to  that  comrade  whom  they  would  shield. 

Shall  pupils  be  compelled  to  tell  when  they  possess  knowl- 
edge of  a  wrong  done  and  yet  refuse  to  divulge  it .''  This 
is  a  very  difficult  question  to  answer.  In  general,  the 
scruples  of  the  pupil  should  be  respected  ;  effort  should  be 
made  to  convince  him  of  his  duty  to  testif}'',  and  the  mat- 
ter should  be  placed  before  him  in  its  proper  light.  If  this 
is  done,  absolute  refusal  to  tell  will  be  rare.  Let  me  sug- 
gest a  method  of  procedure  that  will  practically  remove  all 
necessity  of  resorting  to  compulsion.  In  the  first  place, 
the  teacher  must  be  frank  with  his  pupils.  He  must  not 
pretend  to  knowledge  of  the  guilty  person  that  he  does  not 
possess.  Such  pretension  will  deceive  no  one,  while  it  will 
bring  the  teacher  into  disrepute  with  the  pupils.  Some 
boys,  during  recess,  broke  a  window-pane  in  a  neighboring 
house  while  snowballing.  The  owner  made  complaint,  and 
the  principal  promised  to  satisfy  him,  Wlien  school  was 
called,  the  boys  were  taken  into  a  room  by  themselves,  and 
the  principal  addressed  them  as  follows  :  "  Boys,  a  win- 
dow-pane was  shattered  during  recess  at  Mr.  B.'s.  Now,  I 
do  not  know  who  did  it,  but  presume  it  was  an  accident. 
I  shall  be  very  glad  if  the  boy  who  did  it  will  make  it 
known."  One  of  the  boys  arose  at  once  and  said,  "  I  did 
it,  sir."  "Thank  you,  William,  for  your  prompt  response  ; 
will  you  see  that  the  damage  is  repaired  ? "  "  Yes,  sir," 
replied  the  boy.  "  Very  well,  boys.  I  felt  sure  that  you 
would  be  frank  with  me.  You  may  return  to  your  work." 
That  ended  the  incident,  and  such  a  course  in  similar  cases 
would  usually  meet  with  a  like  result. 

The  following  may  be  suggested  as  the  proper  order  of  pre 


THE   TREATMENT   OF   SCHOOL   EVILS. 


IIJ 


cedure  when  the  perpetrator  of  an  offence  is  unknown  to  the 
teacher  :  (i)  State  the  offence,  show  its  evil,  point  out  where- 
in it  may  work  injury  to  the  innocent  as  well  as  the  guilty, 
bring  it  before  the  school  in  its  true  light,  and  finally  call 
upon  the  offender  to  take  the  responsibility  of  his  act.  (2) 
If  there  is  no  response,  dismiss  the  matter  till  some  future 
time,  calling  for  a  private  confession.  Let  it  be  understood 
that  no  one  else  than  the  guilty  one  is  to  give  information  at 
this  stage  of  the  investigation.  The  whole  responsibility 
is  thrown  upon  him ;  there  is  to  be  no  testimony  even  ; 
much  less,  no  suspicion  of  tattling.  Should  the  first  step 
pass  without  result,  it  will  seldom  occur  that  the  second 
will  not  clear  up  the  matter.  For  the  majority  of  the 
school,  who  stand  for  law  and  order,  will  bring  pressure  to 
bear  upon  the  offender  to  do  his  duty,  because  he  has 
received  a  fair  chance,  and  if  he  remains  silent,  he  involves 
the  whole  school  in  his  offence.  (3)  Should  the  guilty 
person  still  refuse  to  confess,  the  teacher  should  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fairness  of  the  course  pursued,  to  the  meanness 
of  the  unknown  culprit  in  allowing  the  whole  school  to 
share  his  blame,  and  to  the  fact  that  if  their  sense  of  honor 
required  them  to  withhold  their  knowledge  of  the  affair,  up 
to  this  point,  that  sense  should  now  be  satisfied.  This  will 
serve  to  make  the  offence  and  the  offender  more  odious  to 
the  rest  of  the  pupils,  and  it  prepares  the  way  for  the 
fourth  step,  which  is  to  invite  information  from  any  source. 
If  there  is  a  healthful  sentiment  in  the  school,  the  needed 
information  will  now  be  given.  Indeed,  the  matter  will 
rarely  go  so  far  as  this,  certainly  not  after  the  plan  has 
been  tried  and  the  pupils  have  learned  the  spirit  of  the 
teacher.  Should,  however,  the  pupils  still  hold  out  and 
refuse  to  tell,  all  who  know  the  guilty  person  become  par 


114  ^    ^^'^^^    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

ticipators  in  the  wrong,  and  may  justly  be  held  accountable. 
In  the  mean  time  the  teacher  has  not  been  idle,  but  through 
unmistakable  signs,  which  the  experienced  teacher  will 
know,  he  will  arrive  at  a  correct  judgment  as  to  who  is 
guilty. 

This  method  of  procedure  will  not  encourage  tattling, 
but  will  teach  children  that  there  are  times  in  school  life, 
as  in  courts  of  justice,  when  to  give  testimony  is  not  mean 
or  debasing,  but  an  exercise  of  a  high  moral  duty.  And 
this  lesson  ought  to  be  taught  to  the  pupils  of  our  elemen- 
tary and  high  schools.  A  false  and  extreme  notion  of  the 
evil  of  "  telling  on  "  one  another  has  been  fostered  among 
children,  and  this  should  be  corrected  by  teaching  them 
that  there  are  times  when  it  is  their  duty  to  give  testimony. 

6.  Whispering.  —  The  little  child  has  been  accustomed 
to  talk  freely  with  his  mother  and  his  playmates  before 
entering  school,  and  he  is  likely  to  continue  that  practice. 
Many  teachers  unwisely  attempt  to  eliminate  whispering 
entirely ;  and  by  rewards  and  punishments,  by  a  system  of 
individual  reporting  at  the  close  of  the  day,  and  by  other 
devices,  they  seek  to  prevent  any  whispering.  Now,  too 
much  whispering  is  certainly  a  grievous  evil,  which  inter- 
feres in  the  maintenance  of  the  two  essentials  of  good  dis- 
cipline already  pointed  out,  namely,  the  protection  of  the 
individual  and  the  general  order  of  the  school.  Whisper- 
ing should  not  be  regarded  as  an  evil  per  se,  like  stealing, 
lying,  cheating,  etc.,  and  the  pupils  should  be  shown  the 
distinction,  —  it  is  not  a  sin.  They  should  be  instructed 
that  any  restriction  of  this  practice  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  many  persons  are  at  work  in  the  same  room,  and  in 
order  to  secure  good  results  quiet  must  be  maintained. 


THE  TREATMENT  OF  SCHOOL  EVILS. 


1^5 


Having  established  this  distinction,  I  should  seek  once 
more  to  put  the  whole  matter  on  a  business  basis.  A 
gang  of  men  are  digging  a  ditch,  and  William  wants  to 
borrow  a  pick  from  John.  Must  he  seek  the  boss  and 
secure  permission  to  ask  John  for  the  pick  ?  Such  a 
course  would  be  ridiculous  ;  and  yet  for  a  pupil  to  interrupt 
the  teacher,  whose  attention  is  directed  to  the  class  he  is 
teaching,  to  get  permission  to  borrow  a  pencil  from  another 
pupil,  is  not  less  ridiculous.  Now,  if  William  and  John  stop 
work  to  discuss  politics,  or  a  baseball  game,  or  even  waste 
time  in  arguing  how  their  work  should  be  done,  the  fore- 
man would  be  justified  in  calling  them  to  order.  So  if 
pupils  abuse  the  right  to  communicate  by  long  conversa- 
tions, even  though  it  be  about  lessons,  or  if  they  make  too 
much  noise,  it  becomes  disorder  which  must  be  checked. 
Children  should  be  trained  freely  to  go  about  the  room, 
quietly  asking  others  for  what  they  need,  and  then  to  re- 
turn to  their  own  work  without  interrupting  or  disturbing 
the  teacher  or  the  other  pupils.  If  they  are  interested  in 
their  work,  if  they  have  plenty  to  do,  if  they  have  been 
taught  to  keep  employed,  and  if  there  is  naturalness  in  the 
attitude  of  the  children  towards  school  life,  whispering  can 
be  allowed,  and  good  rather  than  evil  will  follow. 

7.  Lying.  —  This  is  a  most  serious  offence,  —  a  sin 
against  God,  —  and  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  impress 
its  enormity  upon  the  minds  and  consciences  of  the  chil- 
dren. Temptation  to  lie  should  not  be  put  in  the  way  of 
children,  and  they  should  be  taught  that  whenever  they 
are  guilty  of  wrong-doing  the  punishment  will  be  lighter  if 
the  truth  is  told.  Fear  of  punishment  is  usually  the  cause 
of  lying.     Some  children  through  their  home  environment 


Il6  A   NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

have  been  taught  to  he,  and  consequently  they  are  devoid 
of  a  proper  sense  of  the  seriousness  of  the  evil.  School 
children  easily  become  addicted  to  falsehood  in  connection 
with  their  school-work  unless  great  care  is  exercised  to 
prevent  the  fault.  They  must  be  taught  that  concealment 
may  be  as  truly  a  lie  as  an  open  statement,  and  that  "a  lie 
that  is  half  the  truth  is  ever  the  worst  of  lies."  It  should 
be  explained  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  "white  lie," 
that  all  lying  is  black,  and  evil,  and  wicked. 

I  knew  a  teacher  to  pass  by  without  reproof  a  detected 
lie  because  the  daily  program  called  for  arithmetic ! 
There  is  such  a  thing  as  paying  tithes  "  of  mint,  anise, 
and  cummin,"  and  omitting  "  the  weightier  matters  of  the 
law."  Of  course,  the  daily  program  is  a  guide  for  the 
work  of  each  day,  and  it  should  not  be  set  aside  for  trivial 
causes ;  but  when  a  great  evil  has  been  committed,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  deal  with  the  matter  at  once, 
for  education  is  worse  than  evil  if  it  is  not  established  in 
moral  principles.  It  need  not  be  added  that  the  most 
effective  agency  for  teaching  truthfulness  is  the  absolute 
fidelity  to  truth  both  in  word  and  act  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher. 

8.  Cheating.  —  Closely  allied  to  lying,  is  cheating,  and 
children  should  be  taught  that  cheating  is  merely  another 
form  of  lying.  Pupils  cheat  by  handing  in  exercises  bor- 
rowed from  others,  as  their  own,  and  by  securing  unlawful 
help  in  tests  and  examinations,  and  in  their  regular 
recitations.  Here  again  they  must  be  shown  how  dishonor- 
able such  practices  are.  Cheating  must  be  made  so  odious 
that  the  class  itself  will  frown  upon  those  who  attempt  it. 

A  class  of  young  men  in  a  Southern  university  were 


THE   TREATMENT   OF    SCHOOL   EVILS. 


117 


taking  an  examination.  They  had  been  placed  entirely 
upon  their  honor,  the  professor  having  given  them  the 
questions  and  left  the  room.  An  alumnus  of  the  institution 
dropped  in  to  witness  the  work,  and  while  sitting  there  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  a  certain  young  man  was  cheating. 
He  was  copying  the  work  of  another  student  who  sat  near 
him.  The  visitor  communicated  his  suspicion  to  a  member 
of  the  class,  who  upon  watching  the  proceeding  also  became 
convinced  that  it  was  a  case  of  cheating.  When  the  pro- 
fessor came  in  at  the  close  of  the  examination  to  get  the 
papers,  a  committee  of  students  asked  him  for  the  two  sets 
of  papers  involved.  After  comparing  them,  and  finding  un- 
mistakable evidences  of  guilt,  they  at  once  called  a  mass- 
meeting  of  the  students,  and  placed  the  facts  before  them. 
The  young  man  was  cited  before  the  student-body,  charged 
with  cheating,  and  ordered  to  leave  town  before  six  o'clock 
that  day,  which  he  dared  not  refuse  to  do.  The  faculty 
had  no  part  whatever  in  the  proceeding.  Now,  this  showed 
a  high  sense  of  honor  among  the  students,  and  cheating 
would  naturally  be  very  rare  in  that  institution. 

Every  school  should  aim  to  reach  this  high  ideal,  thus 
making  cheating  unpopular,  so  that  those  who  practise  it 
shall  be  made  to  feel  the  displeasure  of  their  schoolmates, 
rather  than  to  think  that  they  have  done  a  smart  thing  in 
successfully  deceiving  their  teacher. 

9.  Stealing.  —  Like  lying  and  cheating,  stealing  is  a  sin, 
and  must  be  treated  as  such.  Children  should  be  taught 
that  to  take  what  does  not  belong  to  them,  even  if  it  has  no 
more  value  than  a  pin,  is  stealing.  A  little  girl  four  years 
old  was  playing  in  front  of  her  home,  while  her  mother  sat 
upon  the  veranda.     The  child  picked  up  some  pieces  of 


Il8  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

cracked  stone  and  put  them  in  her  basket  to  play  with. 
When  her  mother  discovered  the  stones,  she  said  to  her 
little  daughter,  "  Where  did  you  get  those  stones  ?  "  "  Over 
there,  from  Mrs.  B.'s  sidewalk,"  was  the  reply.  "Take 
them  back  at  once,  and  go  to  Mrs.  B.  and  apologize  for 
taking  what  does  not  belong  to  you,"  said  the  mother.  It 
was  a  very  small  matter,  when  one  considers  the  intrinsic 
value  of  the  property,  but  not  a  small  matter  as  a  lesson  to 
the  child.  Children  have  no  conception  of  values,  and  the 
mother  acted  wisely  in  requiring  her  little  girl  to  return 
what  she  had  taken  and  what  did  not  belong  to  her.  A 
German  father  was  walking  with  his  two  young  daughters 
through  a  neighbor's  orchard  on  the  way  to  his  own  fruit- 
trees.  He  observed  one  of  his  daughters  help  herself  to 
a  plum  that  was  lying  under  the  neighbor's  tree.  After 
reprimanding  her  for  what  she  had  done,  he  went  to  his 
own  trees,  took  two  plums,  and  sent  his  child  to  put  them 
in  the  place  from  which  she  had  taken  the  first  plum.  A 
small  matter,  one  might  hastily  say ;  a  large  matter  when 
one  thinks  of  the  lesson  taught.  And  in  this  very  particu- 
lar, that  of  stealing  fruit,  it  is  a  lesson  that  American 
children  should  learn.  In  Professor  Stoy's  school-grounds 
at  Jena  there  was  a  number  of  fruit-trees.  One  day  as  I 
passed  into  the  school,  I  saw  some  beautiful,  ripe  pippins 
lying  under  the  trees,  which  none  of  the  boys  touched.  It 
was,  to  me,  such  a  remarkable  circumstance,  that  I  men- 
tioned it  to  the  principal.  He  looked  at  me  in  astonishment 
and  said,  "  Why,  how  can  they  take  those  apples  ?  They  do 
not  belong  to  them  !  "  Our  children  ought  to  learn  the 
meaning  of  miue  and  thijie,  even  in  small  things. 

A  few  children  come  from  homes  where  the  wron^  of 
stealing  is  not  recognized  ;  indeed,  some  are  even  tai  gb*-. 


THE   TREATMENT   OF    SCHOOL   EVILS.  II9 

to  Steal.  Hence  it  will  be  necessary  to  teach  them  first 
principles.  Let  no  temptation  be  thrown  in  their  way ; 
lunch-baskets  should  be  placed  where  stealing  is  im- 
possible. Children  do  not  always  steal  lunches  because 
they  are  hungry,  but  often  because  they  want  to  try  the 
dainty  things  that  some  other  child  has  brought.  Even  if 
hunger  impels,  stealing  lunches  cannot  be  condoned  ;  the 
child  who  suffers  loss  of  his  dinner  also  has  rights  that 
must  be  protected.  By  frequent  talks,  by  picturing  the 
great  evil  of  stealing,  by  punishing  those  who  are  guilty, 
the  enormity  of  this  sin  must  be  brought  home  to  the  con- 
sciences of  the  children. 

10.  Impudence.  —  This  evil  shows  itself  both  in  manner 
and  in  word.  Impudence  in  manner  may  be  just  as  real 
and  just  as  offensive  as  the  saucy  word,  but  to  describe  it 
to  parents  or  to  the  trustees  is  hard.  Making  faces, 
sticking  out  the  tongue,  insolent  leering,  shrugging  the 
shoulders,  are  as  truly  impudent  as  any  word  that  might 
be  spoken.  Neither  form  of  impudence  should  be  toler- 
ated by  the  teacher,  but  prompt  and  vigorous  treatment 
should  follow,  both  for  the  child's  sake  and  for  the  sake 
of  the  discipline  of  the  school.  The  teacher  that  allows 
impudence  from  his  pupils  will  soon  lose  their  respect,  and 
his  control  of  the  school  will  be  irretrievably  lost.  Noth- 
ing will  sooner  bring  him  into  contempt  before  both  the 
children  and  the  community.  Therefore,  energetic  and 
summary  punishment  must  follow  any  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil  to  be  impudent. 

11.  Rebellion.  —  When  a  child  openly  defies  the  teacher, 

when  he  rebels  against  authority,  when  he  refuses  to  obey, 


I20  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

he  must  be  summarily  dealt  with  and  without  hesitation. 
This  is  no  time  for  the  teacher  to  show  weakness,  nor  is 
there  need  of  his  doing  so.  The  law  of  the  State  clothes 
him  with  ample  authority,  and  the  community  must  sus- 
tain him  in  its  fullest  exercise.  If  a  pupil  cannot  be 
subdued,  he  must  be  removed,  even  if  outside  help  must 
be  summoned.  No  school-work  can  be  done  until  the 
rebellious  pupils  are  brought  into  complete  submission  or 
removed  from  the  school.  In  a  school  on  the  seacoast  a 
rough  young  fellow  who  spent  his  summers  at  sea  entered 
school  for  two  or  three  winter  months.  He  seemed  to 
think  from  the  outset  that  there  was  no  force  in  the  school 
sufficient  to  command  his  obedience,  and  therefore  he  set 
at  defiance  all  regulations,  and  utterly  ignored  the  princi- 
pal's directions.  He  was  suspended  from  school,  and  his 
case  referred  to  the  school  board.  The  next  morning  he 
was  early  at  school,  wdthout  having  seen  the  school  author- 
ities and  without  permission  from  any  one.  ''What  are 
you  doing  here.-*"  asked  the  principal.  "I  am  coming  to 
school;  this  is  a  free  school,"  was  his  reply.  "You  can- 
not remain  here  until  you  bring  a  written  permit  from  the 
president  of  the  board,"  firmly  said  the  teacher.  The 
youth  rapped  his  knuckles  on  the  desk,  and  said,  "This 
is  my  seat,  and  I  propose  to  occupy  it."  The  bell  rang, 
and  he  took  his  place  in  the  line  in  the  hall  with  the  rest 
of  the  pupils  preparatory  to  marching  in.  The  principal 
stepped  between  him  and  the  door,  and  said,  "  You  cannot 
go  into  this  room.  Now,  I  will  give  you  a  final  warning. 
You  have  already  made  yourself  liable  to  a  twenty-five- 
dollar  fine,  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  according  to  the  lav/ 
of  the  State,  for  disobedience  and  rebellion.  If  you  do 
not  leave  at  once  without  further  disturbance  I  shall  take 


THE   TREATMENT   OF    SCHOOL   EVILS.  121 

out  a  warrant  for  your  arrest,  and  prosecute  you  to  the  full 
extent  of  the  law."  The  young  man  wisely  took  the 
warning,  withdrew  at  once,  and  gave  no  further  trouble. 

The  law  in  all  the  States  fully  sustains  the  teacher  in 
maintaining  order.  Parents  and  school  boards  will  uphold 
the  teacher  in  prompt  and  radical  measures  in  cases  of 
rebellion,  for  all  recognize  that  there  can  be  no  success 
with  the  school  unless  the  authority  of  the  teacher  is  up- 
held. Cases  of  rebellion  are  much  more  rare  than  in 
former  times  when  brutal  punishments  aroused  resistance, 
when  teachers  were  ignorant  and  unskilled  in  the  manage- 
ment of  schools,  and  when  public  sentiment  sustained  the 
pupils  in  acts  of  insubordination  and  rowdyism. 


CHAPTER    X. 

SCHOOL  VIRTUES. 

The  principal  school  virtues  are  regularity,  punctuality, 
neatness,  silence,  accuracy,  industry,  obedience,  truthful- 
ness, fidelity  to  duty,  honesty,  and  politeness.  Having 
discussed  the  negatives  of  some  of  these  virtues,  they  may 
be  passed  by  with  mere  mention.  When  we  have  cured 
irregularity,  tardiness,  dishonesty,  lying,  etc.,  we  shall  have 
the  virtues  that  are  the  antitheses  of  these  vices.  Em- 
phasis, however,  may  be  laid  upon  the  positive  side  of 
some  of  these,  in  order  to  add  to  the  clearness  of  the 
subject. 

I.  Neatness.  —  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  train 
children  to  habits  of  neatness.  \Yq  have  seen  how  this 
is  done  with  regard  to  dress,  written  exercises,  etc.  The 
care  of  the  seat,  of  text-books,  and  of  school  property  calls 
for  vigilance  and  frequent  reminders  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  Every  exercise  placed  on  the  blackboard  or 
written  upon  paper  must  be  an  example  of  neatness.  One 
of  the  chief  advantages  of  school-work  prepared  for  public 
exhibition  is  that  it  teaches  the  pupils  neatness,  for  slovenly 
papers  will  necessarily  be  rejected.  For  this  reason  alone 
such  exhibits  are  worth  all  the  time  and  trouble  they  cost. 
Thus,  exhibits  to  be  placed  about  the  schoolroom,  to  be 
sent  to  teachers'  gatherings,  to  be  prepared  for  State  and 
national  expositions,  should  be  encouraged. 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES. 


123 


There  is  a  universal  practice  in  German  schools  of 
requiring  most  of  the  written  work  done  by  pupils  to  be 
written  in  ink,  in  note-books  prepared  for  that  purpose. 
This  practice  begins  in  the  second  or  third  year,  as  soon 
as  the  children  can  write.  Thus,  in  the  common  schools 
one  will  find  a  set  of  note-books  for  arithmetic,  another  for 
geography,  for  history,  for  spelling,  for  language-work,  for 
botany,  and  so  on  for  each  subject  pursued.  The  child 
forms  the  habit  of  neatly  entering  his  work  on  the  first 
trial,  for  it  cannot  easily  be  erased.  These  note-books  are 
remarkable  for  their  neatness  and  accuracy.  They  also 
show  the  visitor  as  well  as  the  teacher  exactly  what  prog- 
ress is  being  made.  If  an  inspector  visits  the  school,  he 
always  wants  to  see  these  exercise-books,  and  they  afford 
an  excellent  criterion  by  which  he  may  judge  the  efficiency 
of  the  v^rork  done.  It  takes  the  pupil  rather  more  time  at 
first,  but  the  principle  acted  upon  is,  "  Whatever  is  worth 
doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well."  I  know  of  no  better 
means  than  this  of  cultivating  the  habit  of  neatness  in 
school  children. 

2.  Accuracy.  —  Much  the  same  plan  employed  in  teach- 
ing neatness  can  be  used  in  teaching  accuracy.  The  child 
must  learn  to  put  his  work  down  correctly  the  first  time, 
or  he  will  be  required  to  do  it  over  again.  While  rapidity 
is  desirable,  it  must  not  be  sought  at  the  expense  of  accu- 
racy or  neatness.  Not  only  the  written  work,  but  also  the 
statements  in  oral  recitation,  must  be  accurate.  Looseness 
of  statement  is  not  very  far  removed  from  lying.  It  also 
is  detrimental  to  logical  thinking.  Rosenkranz  says : 
"The  fostering  of  the  sense  of  truth,  from  the  earliest 
years  up,  is  the  surest  way  of  leading  the  pupil  to  gain 


lo^,  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  power  of  thinking."  Hence  in  training  the  pupil  to 
accuracy  in  all  forms  of  school-work,  the  habit  of  truthful- 
ness as  well  as  that  of  logical  thinking  is  being  established. 
Perhaps  mathematics,  which  is  an  exact  science,  is  the  best 
means  of  illustrating  the  value  of  accuracy.  Thus,  a  mis- 
take of  one  figure  three  or  four  places  removed  from  the 
unit's  place  would  mean  a  difference  of  thousands  or  tens 
of  thousands.  An  illustration  of  this  kind  would  be  power- 
ful in  convincing  the  child  who  thinks  that  a  mistake  of 
but  one  figure  in  his  example  should  not  count  for  much. 
Other  illustrations  may  be  given  from  actual  life,  such  as 
the  bank  cashier's  duty  accurately  to  balance  his  cash 
account  even  to  the  cent,  or  the  accountant's  in  balancing 
his  books. 

3.  Silence.  —  It  is  not  necessary  to  be  able  to  hear  a  pin 
drop  in  the  school  at  any  time  during  the  day,  but  there 
are  times  when  absolute  silence  should  be  maintained. 
During  the  morning  exercises,  whenever  the  teacher 
or  a  visitor  is  speaking,  whenever  it  is  called  for,  pupils 
must  remain  absolutely  silent.  This  is  an  important  lesson 
for  them  to  learn,  and  it  is  not  repression  by  any  means. 
So  much  has  been  said  in  recent  years  in  criticism  of  the 
old-time  school,  which  required  the  children  to  sit  erect, 
toe  the  mark,  fold  the  hands,  keep  still,  that  the  modern 
school  often  goes  to  the  other  extreme  and  requires  no 
exact  discipline.  As  a  result  of  this,  children  at  church 
or  at  public  gatherings  often  disturb  everybody  in  their 
neighborhood  by  their  restlessness  and  their  inability  to 
keep  quiet  even  for  a  short  time.  There  are  two  lessons 
that  children  need  to  learn  :  first,  to  respect  the  rights  of 
others,  and  to  know  that  their  own  wishes  and  whims  are 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES.  I  25 

not  supreme ;  and  second,  to  understand  that  there  are 
times  when  they  must  be  silent.  Both  of  these  lessons 
should  be  taught  in  the  school ;  and  the  second  can  be 
taught  by  requiring  at  certain  times,  whenever  demanded 
by  the  teacher,  absolute  and  respectful  silence. 

When  silence  is  demanded,  the  pupils  must  sit  erect 
with  nothing  in  their  hands,  in  the  attitude  of  quiet  atten- 
tion. This  may  not  be  required  for  a  long  time  with  little 
children,  but  so  long  as  it  is  required,  it  should  be  perfect. 
A  very  important  lesson  in  life  will  thus  be  inculcated.  It 
may  be  necessary  with  little  children  to  require  the  hands 
to  be  folded  to  prevent  their  getting  into  mischief.  But 
the  arms  should  never  be  folded  behind  the  back,  as  it 
throws  the  body  into  an  unhealthful,  unnatural,  and  un- 
comfortable position.  The  hands  may  be  clasped  in  front, 
but  even  this  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  A  natural  and 
easy  position  should  be  sought,  and  freedom  of  the  hands 
allowed  until  experience  proves  the  necessity  of  folding 
them. 

The  teacher  should  never  rap  loudly  on  the  desk,  or  tap 
the  bell  violently,  or  shout,  in  order  to  secure  silence.  I 
once  knew  a  teacher  who  would  bring  a  heavy  ruler  down 
upon  the  desk  with  a  crash  that  would  at  first  startle  his 
pupils.  He  created  more  noise  and  disorder  than  the  pupils 
did,  and  they  soon  paid  but  little  attention  to  him.  Another 
teacher  would  pound  her  bell  with  such  vigor,  sometimes 
with  anger,  that,  as  a  result,  she  needed  a  new  one  every 
few  weeks.  These  methods  only  aggravate  the  e\"il  and 
cause  confusion.  A  quiet  tap  of  the  pencil,  a  slight  touch 
of  the  bell,  an  incisive  but  not  loud  word,  will  accomplish 
the  purpose  and  bring  the  room  to  quiet  far  more  readily 
than  will  violent  demonstrations.      The  teacher's  manner 


126  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

does  much  to  secure  silence.  When  silence  is  called  for, 
it  should  be  promptly  attained,  and  it  should  be  absolute 
for  the  time  required.  It  will  be  found  that  where  children 
are  trained  to  proper  habits  of  silence,  it  will  prove  a  most 
valuable  aid  to  the  general  order  in  the  school ;  and  such 
training  will  also  have  a  salutary  effect  upon  the  children 
in  their  conduct  in  the  society  of  others  outside  of  the 
school. 

4.  Industry,  —  The  healthy  child  is  naturally  active.  If 
his  activities  are  not  properly  employed,  he  is  sure  to  get 
into  mischief.  Hence  the  importance  of  training  him  to 
be  industrious  in  the  right  direction.  From  the  beginning 
of  school  life,  the  child  should  be  taught  to  employ  himself. 
Idleness  must  be  treated  as  an  evil  that  is  not  to  be  toler- 
ated. So  long  as  the  pupil  is  interested,  there  will  be  no 
trouble  about  keeping  him  employed  ;  hence  the  teacher 
must  keep  him  interested  in  his  work.  But  even  this 
interest  must  be  directed,  or  there  will  be  waste  of  time 
and  misuse  of  energy. 

First  of  all,  the  pupil  must  perform  his  required  tasks. 
He  must  be  taught  to  do  these,  even  though  they  are  not 
his  choice,  before  he  is  allowed  to  take  up  those  more  to 
his  taste.  Here  is  an  excellent  opportunity  to  train  the 
child  in  doing  his  duty.  What  he  ought  to  do  must  be  done 
rather  than  what  he  likes.  There  are  always  some  bright 
children  in  the  school,  who  are  able  to  accomplish  their 
allotted  tasks  much  quicker  than  others,  and  it  is  these 
who  are  likely  to  get  into  mischief.  The  teacher  should 
have  plenty  of  reserve  work  for  these  children  which 
they  should  be  allowed  to  do  when  their  regular  work 
is    done,   and   which    they    can    perform    unaided.      Such 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES.  1 27 

devices  as  the  following  can  be  emplo3'ed :  drawing,  paper- 
cutting,  using  splints,  dissected  maps,  for  little  children ; 
and  reading  from  encyclopaedias  and  reference-books  con- 
cerning men,  inventions,  events,  etc.,  for  older  children. 
A  list  of  interesting  topics  might  be  kept  in  a  box  or  on  a 
bulletin-board,  which  the  pupils  should  be  allowed  to  inves- 
tigate whenever  they  have  leisure.  Houses  that  sell 
school  supplies  have  plenty  of  devices  for  busy-work,  and 
the  teacher  can  easily  construct  others  to  meet  special 
needs.  There  could  be  a  box  each  for  history,  biography, 
problems,  literature,  science,  current  events,  etc.  Ques- 
tions might  be  written  on  small  cards,  which  the  pupils 
should  be  allowed  to  draw  out,  and  to  which  they  should 
find  the  answers.  Such  interest  may  be  aroused  in  this 
work  that  the  teacher  possibly  will  be  obliged  to  limit  it  to 
prevent  the  pupils  from  neglecting  their  regular  school- 
tasks. 

The  versatile  teacher  will  find  an  abundance  of  material 
with  which  to  prevent  idleness ;  and  idleness,  the  pupils 
must  be  brought  to  know,  is  a  vice  not  to  be  tolerated. 
This  training  will  forestall  mischief  and  prevent  disorder. 
Better  still,  it  will  establish  important  habits  of  life.  The 
man  who  has  learned  to  employ  himself  is  not  likely  to 
seek  the  saloon  to  while  away  his  hours  of  idleness,  for  he 
has  no  such  hours.  To  him  the  life  of  the  vagrant  or 
tramp  can  have  no  attractions. 

5.  Truthfulness Although  I  have  discussed  the  neg- 
ative side  of  this  topic,  its  importance  is  so  great  that  it 
seems  wise  also  to  consider  the  positive  side.  First  of  all, 
the  child  should  be  taught  to  be  true  to  himself,  that  not- 
withstanding he  may  deceive  others,  he  cannot  get  away 


1 28  *  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

from  himself.  Cliildren  who  would  scorn  to  prevaricate 
outside  of  school  will  often  act  and  speak  untruths  in  con- 
nection with  their  school  life.  Somehow  they  think  of 
the  school  as  another  life,  where  the  conditions  are  differ- 
ent, where  to  deceive  the  teacher  is  smart,  and  where  to 
cheat  and  escape  detection  are  evidences  of  shrewdness. 
Parents  themselves  are  often  to  be  censured  for  these 
misdemeanors.  They  boast,  in  the  presence  of  their  chil- 
dren, of  the  tricks  they  themselves  played  when  in  school, 
and  their  children  attempt  not  only  to  imitate  their  ex- 
ample, but  to  go  just  a  little  farther  than  their  parents 
went.  I  have  known  children  out  of  school  to  be  the  soul 
of  honor,  but  in  school  to  cheat,  act  falsehoods,  deceive 
their  teacher,  and  perform  other  immoral  acts  with  a  per- 
fectly innocent  air,  and  with  but  few  conscientious  scruples. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  showed  that  the  school  had 
sadly  failed  in  its  duty.  A  close  investigation  in  a  par- 
ticular case  proved  that  this  evil  condition  was  fostered 
by  the  practice  of  the  teacher  in  charge,  who  winked  at 
lying,  assisted  his  pupils  in  cheating,  and  then  perjured 
himself  in  his  report  to  the  Regents.  Many  children  who 
were  brought  under  his  baneful  influence  acquired  habits 
of  falsehood  which  not  only  affected  their  school  life,  but 
which  were  not  lost  when  they  went  out  into  the  world,  as 
their  later  history  proved. 

In  the  next  place,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  be  true 
in  act  as  well  as  in  word.  Many  a  person  will  passively 
assent  to  things  in  which  he  does  not  believe,  and  concern- 
ing which,  were  a  positive  act  required,  he  would  record 
himself  quite  differently.  An  evangelist  was  making  an 
appeal  to  a  Sunday-school.  He  asked  all  teachers  who 
were  desirous  of  the  conversion  of  their  scholars  to  stand. 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES. 


129 


All  stood.  "Now,"  said  he,  "all  of  you  who  are  willing 
to  go  to  perdition  for  the  sake  of  the  salvation  of  your 
scholars,  remain  standing."  All  remained  standing.  I  do 
not  suppose  that  a  single  teacher  would  have  risen,  would 
have  performed  an  act,  in  response  to  this  latter  unscrip- 
tural  and  monstrous  appeal ;  but  all  passively  assented  to 
it  by  remaining  on  their  feet,  much  to  their  later  chagrin. 
If  mature  persons  will  passively  assent  to  a  wrong  thing, 
much  more  may  we  expect  that  children  will  do  the  same. 
Perhaps  some  who  are  more  conscientious  may  think  to 
save  themselves  from  falsehood  by  a  mental  reservation. 
Emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  the  act  that  deceives  as  well 
as  upon  the  spoken  word,  and  children  need  definite 
instruction  on  this  point. 

Once  more,  children  sometimes  tell  falsehoods,  and  sat- 
isfy their  consciences  by  using  some  talismanic  expression, 
such  as  "  Rubber,"  "  Over  the  left,"  etc.,  uttered,  it  may 
be,  in  an  undertone,  or  by  making  some  mysterious  sign. 

Children  should  be  taught  the  wrong  of  such  things,  and 
they  should  be  shown  that  no  incantation  can  remove  the 
character  or  wickedness  of  deception.  There  are  persons 
whose  sense  of  truth  has  become  so  blunted  through  care- 
less speech,  as  well  as  by  deliberate  lying,  that  one  is 
never  sure  they  are  telling  the  truth.  Against  such  in- 
difference our  pupils  must  be  carefully  guarded  ;  and  the 
school  is  a  most  important  agency  for  cultivating  the 
virtue  of  sincere,  open,  active,  and  passive  truthfulness. 

6.  Regard  for  Duty.  —  In  our  eagerness  to  make  tasks 
light  and  school  life  happy,  there  is  danger  that  we  may 
fail  to  acquaint  children  with  the  more  serious  realities  of 
life.     The  methods  employed  should  be  the  very  best,  — 


IJO 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


those  that  take  into  account  the  development  of  the  child 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  natural  and  correct  treatment  of 
the  subject  on  the  other.  But,  as  we  have  seen  elsewhere, 
no  method  can  be  devised  that  liberates  the  pupil  from 
self-exertion,  that  frees  him  from  work.  In  and  through 
this  self-exertion  there  is  abundant  opportunity  to  train  the 
child  to  do  his  duty.  There  are  some  things  in  life  that, 
however  unpleasant  they  may  be,  must  be  done  because  duty 
demands  it.  All  through  life  men  are  obliged  to  face  irk- 
some tasks,  and  therefore  the  child  must  be  trained  not  to 
shirk  duty.  Those  who  have  never  been  taught  to  fulfil  dis- 
tasteful duties  are  ill  prepared  to  cope  with  hfe's  problems. 
The  parent  or  the  teacher  who  shields  the  child  from  work 
that  is  within  his  strength,  or  stands  between  him  and  the 
difficulties  that  he  ought  to  overcome,  is  not  performing 
for  him  a  friendly  service,  but  a  great  wTong  instead. 
The  lesson  of  duty  to  others  and  to  himself  should  early 
be  inculcated  in  the  life  and  character  of  the  child,  so  that 
he  may  form  the  habit  and  accept  the  principle  of  doing 
right  because  it  is  right  and  because  he  wants  to  do  right. 

7.  Politeness.  —  Politeness  is  a  virtue  not  only  of  the 
home  and  society,  but  also  of  the  school.  If,  as  Matthew 
Arnold  says,  "  Conduct  is  three-fourths  of  life,"  and  if 
true  politeness  is  an  external  evidence  of  conduct,  a  very 
important  duty  is  committed  to  the  school  to  cultivate  this 
virtue.  Surely  every  teacher  has  at  heart  the  future  well- 
being  of  his  pupils,  and  if  politeness  is  so  important  to  suc- 
cess in  life,  is  it  not  worthy  of  more  attention  in  the 
schools  than  it  gets  ? 

Real  politeness  is  unselfishness.  Thus,  if  a  person  yield 
his  seat  to  another,  stand  aside  to  let  some  one  else  go 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES.  IJI 

before  him,  pick  up  an  object  that  somebody  has  dropped, 
go  out  of  his  way  to  show  some  other  person  a  favor,  he 
performs  an  unselfish,  a  polite  act.  The  selfish  thing 
would  be  to  keep  the  seat,  go  first,  let  some  one  else  pick 
up  the  object.  Every  act  of  genuine  politeness  is  an  act 
of  unselfishness.  Hence  the  teaching  of  politeness  is  the 
teaching  of  a  cardinal  virtue. 

Again,  Rosenkranz  says  :  "  Politeness  is  the  virtue  of  civ- 
ilization." According  to  this  definition  a  man  is  civilized 
just  in  proportion  to  his  practice  of  the  recognized  forms  of 
behavior  in  society.  Politeness  is  an  evidence  not  only  of 
good  breeding,  but  also  of  intelligence,  and  of  a  compliance 
with  the  requirements  of  civilized  life.  Emerson  says  : 
"  Give  a  boy  address  and  accomplishments,  and  you  give 
him  the  mastery  of  palaces  and  fortune  wherever  he  goes ; 
he  has  not  the  trouble  of  owning  or  earning  them  ;  they 
solicit  him  to  enter  and  possess." 

It  rests  upon  the  school,  then,  to  give  attention  to  this 
essential  of  proper  education,  far  more  attention  than  it  has 
been  giving.  This  leads  me  to  offer  the  following  sugges- 
tions in  teaching  this  virtue  : 

I.  Inculcate  the  spirit  of  politeness. — This  spirit  has 
already  been  defined  as  unselfishness.  If  politeness  is  a 
mere  form,  it  is  superficial,  and  does  not  reach  the  moral 
end  sought.  The  act  must  not  be  performed  because  the 
eye  of  the  teacher  is  upon  the  child,  or  for  the  sake  of 
reward,  or  to  win  approval.  Thus,  when  the  teacher  says, 
"  I  want  you  always  to  lift  your  hat  when  you  meet  me. 
It  is  polite  to  do  so,"  he  is  not  inculcating  the  spirit  of 
politeness.  The  children  associate  the  act  with  the  teach- 
er's authority,  and  consider  it  a  school  requirement.  Only 
when  they  have  learned  to  lift  the  hat  or  perform  the  po- 


132 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


lite  act  to  any  and  every  person  to  whom  it  is  due  have 
they  caught  the  spirit  of  pohteness.  I  saw  a  young  girl 
in  a  crowded  car  arise  and  offer  her  seat  to  a  feeble  old 
gentleman,  a  stranger  to  her.  "  Here,  sir,  please  take  my 
seat,"  she  said.  "  Oh,  no,  daughter,"  said  the  old  man, 
"keep  your  seat ;  I  can  stand."  The  girl  iiisisted  until  he 
took  the  seat.  Now,  that  young  girl  possessed  the  spirit 
of  true  politeness.  A  number  of  boys  from  twelve  to  fif- 
teen years  of  age,  together  ^^^th  three  of  their  teachers, 
were  standing  on  a  street  corner  one  day  after  school  wait- 
ing for  a  car.  When  the  car  stopped,  every  boy  sprang 
aboard  ahead  of  the  ladies,  took  possession  of  the  vacant 
seats,  and  let  the  teachers  stand.  Here  was  neither  the 
spirit  nor  the  form  of  politeness.  And  yet  these  boys 
came  from  good  homes  and  were  very  polite  to  their  teach- 
ers in  the  schoolroom.  But  they  were  ill-bred,  because  their 
knowledge  and  their  practice  of  politeness  had  not  reached 
deep  enough  to  make  them  thoughtful  and  unselfish.  If 
one  possess  the  real  spirit  of  politeness,  it  will  not  be  like 
a  garb  that  can  be  put  on  or  off  as  occasion  may  offer,  but 
it  will  be  a  part  of  one's  life,  manifesting  itself  at  all  times 
and  to  all  persons. 

2.  Teach  the  foj-ms  of  politeness.  —  There  are  certain 
established  forms  of  politeness  which  one  cannot  ignore. 
No  one  may  be  a  law  unto  himself.  Whatever  is  the 
accepted  usage  should  be  received  and  followed.  This  may 
vary  in  minor  details  in  different  countries,  but  he  who  is 
possessed  of  the  spirit  of  politeness,  and  is  observant  as  to 
the  forms  of  etiquette  which  people  of  culture  practise, 
will  have  no  trouble  in  adjusting  himself  to  any  conditions. 
There  is  a  sense  in  which  the  ma.xim,  "  While  in  Rome  one 
must  do  as  the  Romans  do,"  can  be  approved.     In  visiting 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES. 


^33 


a  foreign  country  persons  will  save  themselves  embarrass- 
ment and  even  humiliation  by  observing  this  rule. 

To  portray  just  what  should  be  taught  in  our  schools  is 
rather  difficult.     Details  must  be  sought  for  in  books  on 
etiquette.     A  few  commonplace  matters  may  be  mentioned. 
a.   How  to  give  and  receive  an  introduction.  —  Unless 
children  are  instructed  in  these  forms  they  are  apt  to  be 
boorish,  and  if  they  are  at  all    sensitive,  they  will  suffer 
mortification.     Education  here  can  be   acquired    only   by 
practising  the  aphorism  of    Comenius,   "  We    learn  to  do 
by  doing."     I  have  seen  teachers  in  the  kindergarten  place 
a  child  in  front  of  his  schoolmates,  and  direct  another  to 
bring  forward  other  children  and  go  through  the  form  of  an 
introduction.     They  were  taught  to  do  this  gracefully,  and 
I  thought  it  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  exercises  I  ever 
saw  in  school.     Many  parents  wisely  attend  to  t;Jiis  in  the 
home,  and  it  saves  their  children  from  future  embarrass- 
ment.    There  is  nothing  more  beautiful    than    to    see    a 
young  child  when  introduced  step  forward,  offer  the  hand, 
and  with  a  graceful  bow  say,  "  How  do  you  do  .■'  "     There 
is  nothing,  on  the  other  hand,  more  distressing  than  to 
observe  a  child  when  introduced  hang  his  head  and   act 
sheepish.     The  disposition  of  some  children  to  do  these 
things  often  leads  to  increased  bashfulness ;  their   conduct 
in  this  matter  is  usually  due  to  ignorance  of  what  is  the 
right  thing  to  do.     If  the  child  is  bashful,  there  is  no  better 
means  of  overcoming  this  weakness  than  by  training  him 
in  the  forms  of  introduction.  ' 

Another  feature  of  this  question  should  be  cultivated 
among  American  people,  and  that  is,  how  to  introduce 
one's  self.  It  sometimes  occurs  that  there  is  no  interme- 
diary to  pass  the  name  of  the  one  to  the  other.     Not  long 


134  ^    ^^^    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

ago  I  went  into  a  schoolroom  in  a  large  school  of  one  of 
our  great  cities.  Stepping  up  to  the  gentleman  in  charge 
of  the  room,  I  said,  ''  My  name  is  S."  "  How  do  you  do,  Mr. 
S.  ?  "  was  the  greeting,  with  no  indication  that  I  was  en- 
titled to  know  his  name  in  response  to  my  introduction.  I 
have  observed  in  foreign  countries  that  if  two  persons  are 
brought  into  close  contact  in  a  railway  compartment,  at 
table,  or  on  an  excursion,  it  will  not  be  long  before  one  will 
say,  "  My  name  is  B,"  and  the  other  will  respond  at  once, 
"My  name  is  A."  This  mutual  introduction  breaks  down 
barriers  and  opens  the  way  for  pleasant  intercourse  and 
good-fellowship.  Even  ladies  are  not  excluded  from  this 
etiquette,  and  it  does  not  expose  them  to  insult,  or  bring 
against  them  the  charge  of  forwardness. 

<^.  Tad/e  manners,  —  Discretion  must  be  used  in  teach- 
ing table  manners,  else  parents  will  interpret  the  criticism 
that  their  children  bring  home  as  aimed  at  themselves.  In 
kindergartens  where  a  lunch  is  served  and  where  table 
furniture  is  provided,  definite  instruction  can  be  given  at 
the  most  favorable  time  of  life.  Attention  can  be  called 
to  the  most  common  matters  of  table  etiquette  from  time  to 
time  without  awakening  antagonism  or  causing  any  one 
to  feel  that  personal  criticism  is  intended.  Confucius  says, 
"  Eat  at  your  table  as  you  would  eat  at  the  table  of  the 
king." 

c.  Lifting  the  Jiat.  —  Boys  should  be  taught  to  observe 
the  practice  of  well-bred  men.  Moreover,  as  shown  else- 
where, they  should  be  taught  to  uncover  the  head  to  others 
as  well  as  to  their  teacher. 

d.  WJien  to  excuse  one's  self.  —  Children  are  not  to 
be  taught  indiscriminately,  "  Always  excuse  yourself  when- 
ever you  pass  in  front  of  a  person."     I  once  witnessed  a 


SCHOOL   VIRTUES. 


^3S 


march  in  a  schoolroom  in  which  every  child  that  passed 
me  repeated  the  words,  "Excuse  me."  There  was  no 
sense  in  this  proceeding,  and  not  one  of  the  children 
gained  the  slightest  idea  thereby  as  to  when  he  should 
excuse  himself.  They  were  discharging  a  duty  which  left 
them  no  alternative  ;  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  march  in 
front  of  me.  Only  when  a  person  interferes  with  or  dis- 
commodes another  should  he  excuse  himself. 

e.  When  to  give  place  to  others.  —  In  passing  through 
doors,  in  street-cars,  in  crowded  assemblages,  there  are 
abundant  opportunities  to  show  politeness,  and  these 
opportunities  do  not  occur  to  men  alone.  By  a  simple 
"Thank  you!"  by  moving  up  when  people  are  standing 
and  there  is  room  for  another,  even  by  yielding  her  seat 
to  one  whose  necessity  is  greater  than  hers,  a  woman  has 
opportunity  to  show  good  breeding.  And  this  is  the 
politeness,  practised  by  either  sex,  that  is  the  highest  form 
of  unselfishness. 

f.  Respect  for  older  persons.  —  At  the  sesqui-centennial 
at  Princeton  in  1896,  the  President  of  the  United  States 
stood  on  a  platform  in  front  of  old  Nassau  Hall  and 
reviewed  the  great  line  of  alumni  as  they  marched  by. 
First  came  the  class  of  '96  with  its  hundreds  of  shouting 
young  fellows,  then  the  class  of  '95,  followed  by  the  other 
classes  in  order  down  through  the  90's,  8o's,  70' s,  6o's, 
etc.,  the  ranks  growing  thinner  according  to  the  age  of 
the  class.  As  the  gray-haired,  halting  veteran  representa- 
tives of  the  noble  old  college  passed  the  stand,  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  uncovered  his  head  as  a  token  of  re- 
spect for  old  age,  and  remained  uncovered  in  the  chilly 
night-air  until  the  last  man  had  slowly  filed  by.  It  was 
a  beautiful    tribute    of    respect,   ,and    it   was   a   lesson    in 


Ij6  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

politeness  that  millions  of  American  children  might  well 
learn, 

A  body  of  celebrated  men  were  sitting  about  a  table  in 
a  German  city  listening  to  an  address  from  one  of  their 
number.  The  door  opened,  and  an  aged  man  came  in. 
The  speaker  ceased  at  once,  and  every  man  rose  to  his 
feet  and  stood  until  the  old  gentleman  had  taken  his  seat. 
It  was  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  and  the  tribute  of 
respect  was  to  the  old  man  as  well  as  to  the  great 
scientist.  It  is  a  universal  practice  in  German  schools  for 
the  whole  body  of  pupils  to  rise  upon  the  entrance  of  a 
visitor  and  remain  standing  until  the  visitor  is  seated.  I 
know  of  no  exercise  that  is  productive  of  better  results  in 
teaching  politeness  than  this.  One  school  in  this  country, 
at  least,  follows  the  practice  of  receiving  the  formal  intro- 
duction of  a  visitor  on  the  platform  by  rising  in  a  body. 
It  is  a  most  beautiful  and  impressive  spectacle  —  one  that 
never  fails  to  awaken  deepest  pleasure  in  the  person  thus 
greeted.  I  believe  that  the  general  adoption  of  this 
practice  would  materially  aid  in  bringing  about  the  reforms 
for  which  I  am  pleading  in  this  chapter. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  reverence  old  age  without 
regard  to  station,  dress,  sex,  or  other  circumstance.  They 
should  be  taught  this  for  their  own  sakes,  as  well  as  for 
the  sake  of  those  who  begin  to  feel  that  they  are  in  the 
way  in  the  world.  Well  might  American  children  learn 
from  the  ancient  Jews,  from  the  Spartans,  the  Persians, 
the  Romans,  and  also  from  the  Germans,  to  revere  the 
hoary  head,  and  to  show  respect  to  their  seniors. 

g.  Respect  for  those  m  authority.  —  The  fact  that  a 
man  has  been  chosen  to  represent  his  community  or  his 
country  in  a  political  position,  ought    to  win  respect  for 


SCHOOL    VIRTUES. 


137 


him.  It  is  deplorable  that  newspapers,  partisans,  and  citi- 
zens generally,  so  often  speak  in  terms  of  disrespect  con- 
cerning those  that  have  been  chosen  to  rule  over  them, 
usually  because  they  belong  to  the  opposite  party.  Persons 
who  are  unworthy  of  respect  should  never  be  named  for 
office ;  and  when  a  person  has  been  elected,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  people  to  recognize  him  as  representing  authority, 
and,  therefore,  as  worthy  of  respect.  It  is  unseemly  in  a 
great  country  like  ours,  that  candidates  for  our  highest 
offices,  in  a  political  campaign  are  held  up  to  ridicule.  It 
shows  a  lack  of  respect  for  the  dignity  of  the  office  when  a 
candidate  is  spoken  of  as  "Bill,"  "Teddy,"  "Jim,"  or 
"Tom."  These  things  are  bad  for  children,  who,  through 
the  disrespect  shown  to  the  persons  representing  authority, 
easily  learn  to  have  little  respect  for  law  and  authority. 

Besides  these  things  that  I  have  mentioned,  tliere  are 
many  others  that  will  occur  to  the  teacher,  such  as  the 
treatment  of  one's  own  family,  of  servants,  of  employees, 
etc.  A  book  on  etiquette  will  not  only  suggest  topics,  but 
will  also  furnish  details  of  how  to  treat  them. 

Both  the  spirit  and  the  form  of  politeness  are  essential, 
—  the  spirit,  which  is  the  essence  of  true  politeness,  being 
unselfishness  ;  and  the  form,  which  embodies  the  conven- 
tionalities of  society  and  of  life.  Training  in  both  of  these 
will  materially  aid  the  child  in  meeting  the  duties  of  life, 
and  winning  success. 

The  exercise  of  the  virtue  of  politeness  will  aid  in  dis- 
cipline, promote  happiness,  further  good-fellowship,  and 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  school  itself.  It  is  not  only 
invaluable  in  one's  intercourse  with  others,  but  it  is  a  most 
important  virtue  in  the  ideal  school.  "  Courtesy  gives  its 
owner  passport  round  the  iilobc," 


CHAPTER   XL 

SCHOOL  MORALS. 

The  school  should  stand  for  the  highest  morality,  and 
parents  should  be  able  to  feel  that  in  committing  their 
children  to  the  charge  of  the  school,  no  risks  are  run.  The 
transition  from  the  environment  of  the  home  to  that  of  the 
school  is  very  great.  Surely  the  school,  under  charge  of 
the  kind  of  teacher  we  have  demanded  in  Chapters  I.  and 
II.,  should  not  be  less  pure  than  the  home.  If  there  is 
indifference  as  to  moral  ideals  ;  if  there  is  looseness  in  prac- 
tice, vulgarity  in  speech,  indecency  in  act ;  if  there  is  not 
a  high  moral  tone,  —  it  were  better  to  close  the  school,  no 
matter  how  efficient  its  work  may  be  in  other  respects. 
The  whole  moral  tone  of  a  community  can  be  uplifted  by 
the  purity  of  morals  of  the  school ;  on  the  other  hand,  lack 
of  high  moral  ideals  in  the  school  may  debase  a  whole 
community. 

Character  of  the  Teacher.  —  All  the  moral  influence  of 
the  school  centres  around  the  life  and  character  of  the 
teachen  The  children  learn  to  think  as  he  thinks,  to  act 
as  he  acts.  A  young  teacher's  influence  for  temperance 
in  a  village  was  so  great  that  every  saloon  was  closed.  It 
was  not  so  much  what  he  did  outside  of  school,  as  his  influ- 
ence upon  his  pupils,  who  in  turn  led  the  irparents  to  vote 
against  license.     Nor  did  he  discuss  the  license  question 

138 


SCHOOL   MORALS.  1 39 

in  school ;  but  his  strong,  moral  Hfe  left  no  doubt  in  the 
pupils'  minds  as  to  what  his  attitude  upon  the  liquor  ques- 
tion must  be,  and  his  pupils  believed  as  he  did.  The  gain- 
ing of  such  a  powerful  influence  over  the  lives  of  his  pupils 
by  a  teacher  so  that  they  are  ready  unquestioningly  to  follow 
him,  brings  a  proportionate  responsibility,  but  a  blessed 
opportunity  to  do  good  when  one's  own  life  is  pure  is  also 
presented.  The  teacher  with  lofty  ideals  which  he  carries 
out  in  the  school  and  in  the  community,  is  the  most  potent 
factor  in  fixing  the  high  ideals  of  society.  It  was  the  char- 
acter of  Arnold  of  Rugby,  rather  than  his  methods  of 
instruction,  that  shaped  the  lives  of  his  boys  and  left  a 
permanent  moral  impress  upon  the  leaders  of  England 
which  will  be  an  influence  for  good  for  many  generations. 
No  effective  moral  instruction  can  be  given  in  the  school 
unless  the  teacher  is  wholly  sound  in  his  moral  life. 

Importance  of  Moral  Instruction,  —  Between  the  years 
1875  ^^^  1S95  the  attendance  in  the  schools  of  England 
increased  from  1,500,000  to  nearly  6,000,000  pupils. 
During  the  same  time  the  number  of  arrests  per  annum  of 
juveniles  decreased  from  14,000  to  5,000.  The  only  dis- 
cernible cause  of  this  decrease  is  the  influence  of  the 
schools,  a  most  remarkable  commentary  on  the  moral  effect 
of  keeping  children  at  school.  France  has  recently  adopted 
a  regular  course  of  moral  instruction  in  all  her  schools  as 
the  most  potent  means  of  checking  immorality  in  the 
nation.  It  is  not  to  be  gathered  from  this  that  we  advocate 
the  introduction  of  moral  training  as  a  regular  part  of  the 
curriculum,  or  that  we  would  give  it  a  fixed  place  in  the 
daily  program.  The  danger  of  this  is  that  the  pupils  will 
regard  themselves  as  being  "preached  at,"  and  will  fortify 


140  A   NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

themselves  against  the  teaching,  thereby  destroying  the 
effect  intended.  But  nevertheless  the  teacher  must  have 
a  plan  of  teaching  morals  that  will  touch  every  phase  of 
life  and  embrace  all  of  the  important  ethical  questions. 
Great  wisdom  will  be  needed  in  formulating  such  a  scheme. 
If  the  teacher  appreciates  that  all  teaching  is  vain  and 
v/orse  than  vain  if  it  is  not  based  on  ethical  foundations,  if 
he  recognizes  that  character-building  is  the  great  aim  of 
education,  if  he  possesses  a  keen  sense  of  the  importance 
of  the  subject,  he  will  not  be  at  a  loss  for  abundant  mate- 
rial for  lessons  in  morals.  In  every  lesson  taught,  in  all 
of  the  relations  of  the  pupils  to  each  other  and  to  him,  in 
disciphne,  in  the  very  atmosphere  of  the  school,  the  teacher 
will  find  opportunities  for  moral  instruction.  While  there 
may  be  no  formulated  course  of  study,  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher  and  in  his  plan,  the  teaching  of  morals  will  be 
systematic  and  wholesome.  This  teaching  is  the  under- 
lying purpose  of  the  school,  and  those  who  support  it  and 
send  their  children  to  it  have  a  right  to  expect  that  this 
purpose  shall  be  fulfilled. 

How  to  Teach  Morals.  —  If  the  need  of  moral  instruction 
is  recognized,  the  next  question  is.  What  shall  be  the  plan 
of  carrying  it  out  .'*     I  submit  the  following  suggestions  : 

I.  Utilize  every  school  interest  for  moral  ends.  —  In  the 
chapters  on  school  evils  and  school  virtues  I  have  tried  to 
bring  the  final  treatment  of  each  topic  discussed  to  a  moral 
basis.  Thus,  in  overcoming  tardiness  and  irregularity, 
bring  the  child  to  see  that  he  is  infringing  upon  the  rights 
of  others ;  in  controlling  whispering,  show  him  that  the 
individual  or  the  school  may  not  be  disturbed ;  in  inculcat- 
ing politeness,  selfishness  is  checked.     The  child  is  to  be 


SCHOOL   MORALS.  I4I 

punctual,  regular,  honest,  truthful,  obedient,  faithful  to 
duty,  because  it  is  right  to  be  so,  and  not  for  the  sake  of 
reward.  Lessons  are  to  be  learned,  the  rights  of  others 
respected,  and  duty  is  to  be  performed,  from  a  sense  of 
moral  obligation.  Accuracy  of  work,  honesty  in  doing 
tasks,  generosity  towards  those  that  are  less  favored,  fair- 
ness in  school  sports,  charity  for  the  weakness  of  others, 
are  virtues  that  may  be  constantly  utilized  in  school  life, 
and  made  to  have  a  most  stimulating  moral  influence. 
There  is  not  a  phase  of  school  life,  either  in  the  schoolroom 
or  on  the  playground,  that  may  not  be  employed  for  moral 
ends.  The  wise  and  conscientious  teacher  will  not  fail  to 
make  use  of  this  material,  without,  however,  advertising 
his  purpose  to  his  pupils.  Little  need  be  said  about  moral 
instruction,  but  the  teacher  will  impart  it  by  word  and  act, 
by  the  silent  and  yet  ceaseless  vigilance  of  one  who  fully 
comprehends  its  need,  and  who  has  a  proper  conception  of 
the  meaning  of  education. 

2.  Do  not  neglect  the  physical  side  of  the  child's  life. 
—  Physical  peculiarities  often  indicate  a  person's  moral 
attributes.  The  slouchy  gait  of  the  tramp  furnishes  more 
than  a  hint  as  to  his  moral  character.  A  well-set-up  body 
commands  respect.  It  also  makes  self-respect  possible, 
and  without  self-respect  there  is  no  such  thing  as  moral 
character.  There  is  certainly  a  close  relation  between  the 
physical  and  the  moral.  I  once  saw,  in  the  city  of  Berlin, 
a  squad  of  raw  recruits  just  being  mustered  into  the  army. 
They  came  from  the  farm,  the  workshop,  the  bench  ;  and 
their  stooping  shoulders,  crooked  legs,  awkward  carriage, 
indicated  that  their  early  life  had  been  one  of  hard  toil. 
The  expression  of  their  faces  and  their  uncouth  manner 
gave    evidence    of     dulncss,   and    one    might    almosf    say 


142 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


indifference  to  all  of  life's  interests.  A  few  months  later 
I  saw  the  same  young  men  under  drill  at  Potsdam.  They 
had  been  through  the  rigid  discipline  of  the  soldier's  life 
during  these  months,  and  it  was  marvellous  to  note  the 
change  in  their  physical  appearance.  The  bent  shoulders 
and  crooked  legs  had  been  straightened,  the  slouchy  gait 
had  been  changed  into  the  firm  movement  and  easy  car- 
riage of  one  who  has  learned  to  bring  the  body  under 
control  of  the  will,  all  slovenliness  of  manner  had  dis- 
appeared. Their  whole  appearance  was  that  of  self-re- 
specting, alert,  intelligent  men,  and  I  am  sure  that  there 
was  no  deception  in  this  appearance.  Many  a  young  man 
enters  the  German  army  with  bad  physical  and  moral 
habits  which  too  often  are  acquired  in  early  manhood  in 
village  or  city  life. 

Even  as  the  two  or  three  years  of  service  in  the  army 
corrects  the  physical  defects,  it  also  improves  the  morals. 
Thus  this  service  becomes  not  only  a  splendid  school  in 
preparing  men  for  the  defence  of  their  country,  but  it  also 
corrects  evil  habits  earlier  acquired,  and  returns  young  men 
to  civil  life  strong  and  sound  in  body,  improved  in  morals, 
and  established  in  habits.  The  array  must  certainly  be 
reckoned  as  one  of  the  agencies  in  the  education  of  the 
German  people,  and  it  is  largely  through  physical  train- 
ing that  its  good  results  are  obtained,  whichever  side  of 
life  —  civil  or  military  — may  be  considered. 

If  such  results  can  be  obtained  with  young  men  who 
have  nearly  reached  their  majority,  how  much  greater 
results  can  be  secured  with  the  plastic  bodies  and  impres- 
sionable minds  of  the  children  of  our  schools !  We  say 
that  the  end  of  education  is  good  character,  and  neglect  a 
very  natural  and  important  means  of   securing  that  end, 


SCHOOL   MORALS. 


43 


namely,  the  proper  development  of  the  body.  Every  day, 
and  every  hour  of  the  day,  the  teacher  meets  opportunities 
to  give  this  training.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  the 
gymnasium  to  do  this,  or  to  set  apart  a  time  for  physical 
culture, — though  this  work  should  not  be  omitted,  — but 
opportunity  will  be  constantly  offered.  Require  pupils  to 
stand  firm  on  both  feet  when  they  recite,  to  carry  their 
bodies  erect  when  they  march,  to  abstain  from  lounging  in 
their  seats,  to  rise  and  to  sit  gracefully,  and  to  walk  with  a 
natural  and  easy  gait ;  —  in  a  word,  they  must  be  taught 
physical  self-control,  and  in  learning  this  they  will  also 
learn  the  lesson  of  moral  self-control. 

3.  Keep  the  children  employed. — I  have  shown  else- 
where (p.  126)  the  importance  of  industry  as  a  virtue  and 
as  a  means  of  maintaining  good  order.  This  question  has 
also  a  moral  side.  The  man  who  does  not  know  how  to 
employ  himself  is  likely  to  seek  the  saloon  and  the  place 
of  questionable  amusement  during  his  leisure  hours.  Time 
hangs  heavily  on  his  hands,  and,  not  knowing  what  to  do 
with  himself,  he  becomes  an  easy  prey  to  vicious  influ- 
ences, and  is  liable  to  acquire  bad  habits.  Saloon-keepers 
realize  this,  and  therefore  they  make  their  resorts  attrac- 
tive with  music,  games,  and  bright  surroundings.  It  is  not 
merely  the  craving  for  drink  that  draws  men  to  these 
places,  it  is  the  need  of  companionship,  the  desire  to  be 
entertained,  the  filling  of  the  void  in  their  own  lives  caused 
by  their  inability  to  employ  their  spare  time.  Men  do  not 
often  leave  their  work  during  the  day  to  visit  these  resorts, 
hence  they  are  not  so  dangerous  during  working-hours. 
It  is,  then,  a  great  moral  problem  to  teach  children  what 
to  do  with  their  unoccupied  hours,  to  teach  them  how 
to  employ  themselves. 


144 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMtiNT. 


By  teaching  children  the  lesson  of  self- employment,  the 
school  thus  tortifies  them  against  intemperance  and  its 
attendant  evils.  I  have  said  elsewhere  that  children  must 
be  impressed  with  the  thought  that  idleness  is  a  vice, 
and  therefore,  by  preventing  this  vice,  morality  is  in- 
culcated. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  shape  the  moral  as  well  as 
the  intellectual  life  of  the  nation,  I  think  it  important, 
therefore,  to  teach  honesty  towards  the  public  service. 
There  is  no  reason  why  a  man,  working  for  the  State  or 
the  city,  should  not  give  as  faithful  and  as  honest  service 
as  if  he  were  working  for  an  individual.  It  will  scarcely 
be  claimed  that  such  service  is  generally  rendered.  Ob- 
serve the  employees  of  a  municipality,  from  the  street- 
sweepers  up,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  few  expect  to  give  the 
same  honest  service  that  they  give  to  private  employers 
for  the  same  pay.  And  official  heads  of  departments  do 
not  expect  the  same  faithfulness  from  men  working  under 
them  for  the  city  that  they  demand  of  those  employed  by 
them  in  private  enterprise.  A  false  and  immoral  standard 
has  been  fostered  which  shows  itself  among  our  citizens 
from  the  commonest  laborer  to  the  highest  city  official, 
and  which  has  become,  in  many  cities  of  our  land,  a  prac- 
tical carrying  out  of  the  aphorism,  "  To  the  victors  belong 
the  spoils."  Hence  the  disgraceful  misrule  that  so  often 
characterizes  our  municipal  governments. 

If  this  evil  is  ever  corrected,  it  will  be  because  the  peo- 
ple as  a  whole  want  it  corrected,  and  the  public  school 
must  form  a  sentiment  among  those  who  are  to  be  the 
men  and  women  of  the  future  that  will  make  such  things 
impossible.  The  children  must  be  taught  that  when  ihcy 
engage  their  services    in   any    capacity,    whether   in   the 


SCHOOL   MORALS.  1 45 

kitchen  as  cook,  in  the  field  or  the  street  as  laborer,  in  pri- 
vate or  in  public  capacity,  for  the  individual  or  for  a  corpora- 
tion, whether  in  the  most  menial  employment,  or  as  leader 
of  the  greatest  enterprises,  they  owe  the  best  they  can 
give.  And  this  is  a  lesson  sadly  needed  in  every  branch 
of  industry  and  life  in  our  country. 

When  this  lesson  is  learned  and  put  into  practice,  not 
only  will  municipal  government  be  purified,  but  also  the 
great  disturbances  between  capital  and  labor  will  cease. 
The  moral  worth  of  employment  will  not  be  appreciated 
until  this  lesson  is  learned. 

4.  Make  use  of  daily  incidents.  —  Not  a  day  passes  in 
which  there  are  not  incidents  of  school  life  that  may  be 
employed  to  teach  moral  lessons.  It  may  be  something 
that  has  taken  place  on  the  playground.  Some  boys  were 
snowballing  at  recess,  and  one  of  them  accidentally  broke 
a  window  in  a  neighboring  shop.  He  went  at  once  to  the 
shop  and  said  to  the  proprietor,  "  I've  broken  your  win- 
dow, sir,  and  want  to  pay  for  it."  "  You  broke  it  "i  "  said 
the  man.  "  Why  didn't  you  run  ?  That's  the  way  the 
boys  generally  do."  "That  is  not  the  way  I  do,"  replied 
the  boy.  "  I  have  damaged  your  window,  and  it  is  my 
"duty  to  pay  for  it."  "Well,"  said  the  shopkeeper,  "this 
is  the  first  time  a  boy  ever  came  and  owned  up,  and  I've  a 
notion  not  to  let  you  pay  anything."  The  boy  insisted 
that  he  ought  to  pay  for  the  damage  resulting  from  the  ac- 
cident. Finally  the  man  said  to  him  :  "  The  boys  have 
broken  so  many  window-lights  for  me  that  it  has  cost 
a  considerable  sum  to  repair  damages.  Now  I  will  have 
this  one  put  in  with  some  other  broken  windows,  and  let 
you  share  the  expense.  I  think  you  will  be  better  satisfied 
with  this  than  if   I  were  to   bear  all  the  expense."     The 


146  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

boy  assented  to  this,  borrowed  the  money  to  pay  his  part, 
and  saved  from  his  weekly  allowance  until  his  debt  was 
discharged.  The  relation  of  such  an  incident  as  this  can- 
not fail  to  make  boys  desire  to  be  manly  and  honest.  It 
also  teaches  them  justice  and  uprightness.  The  boy  who 
had  the  courage  and  manliness  to  accept  the  full  responsi- 
bility of  his  carelessness,  was  the  better  for  doing  so,  and 
his  example  must  have  had  an  excellent  effect  upon  the 
school.  The  lesson  will  have  a  deeper  effect  if  it  is  drawn 
from  an  mcident  that  has  actually  taken  place  in  the 
pupils'  own  school  life  and  has  occurred  in  the  experience 
of  one  of  their  own  number. 

Then  in  the  schoolroom  incidents  frequently  occur  that 
may  be  used.  Two  boys  were  to  read  essays  in  a  contest 
for  a  prize.  The  hour  arrived,  parents  and  friends  were 
assembled,  and  one  of  the  boys  was  called  upon  to  step 
forward  to  the  platform  and  deliver  his  production.  He 
arose,  searched  his  pockets  for  his  essay  ;  it  was  not  to  be 
found  anywhere,  and  he  was  obliged  to  tell  his  teacher  that 
it  was  lost  and  that  he  could  not  compete  for  the  prize. 
The  teacher,  angry  at  such  carelessness,  turned  to  the 
other  boy  and  said,  "  Thomas,  the  prize  is  yours  ;  you  have 
merely  to  go  through  the  form-  of  presenting  your  essay." 
Thomas  arose  and  walked  to  the  platform,  faced  the  audi- 
ence, and  tore  his  manuscript  into  bits.  "  What  does  this 
mean  ? "  asked  the  astonished  teacher.  "  It  means  that  I 
will  not  profit  by  the  misfortune  of  m)'-  competitor,"  said 
the  boy.  The  teacher  looked  at  him  a  moment,  and  then 
publicly  commended  his  generous  act.  Such  an  occasion 
afforded  an  unusual  opportunity  for  a  moral  lesson,  and  it 
needed  scarcely  a  word  to  bring  it  home  to  the  pupils. 

Not  only  incidents  that  actually  occur  in  the  schoolroom, 


SCHOOL   MORALS.  1 47 

but  also  those  that  appear  in  the  class-work,  and  in  tlie 
lessons  themselves,  will  frequently  suggest  moral  truths 
that  can  be  apphed  to  individual  life.  Events  in  the  com- 
munity or  in  the  country  at  large  can  also  be  used.  It 
must  not  be  thought  a  loss  of  time  if  the  teacher  occasion- 
ally omits  the  regular  lesson  of  the  program  to  impress  a 
moral  truth  upon  the  minds  of  his  pupils.  Indeed,  there 
are  times  when  to  stick  to  the  program  and  not  turn  aside 
to  utilize  just  the  right  moment  for  moral  teaching  would 
be  almost  a  crime.  There  are  teachers  who  are  such 
sticklers  for  order  and  system,  that  they  will  not  omit  the 
routine  spelling-lesson  to  take  time  to  impress  upon  the 
children  the  wickedness  of  a  lie. 

It  may  be  well  in  this  connection  to  suggest  that  each 
teacher  should  have  a  scrap-book  in  which  incidents  and 
stories  teaching  morals  are  entered.  This  material  should 
be  classified  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  upon  in  the  future 
when  lessons  in  morals  are  desired.  Thus,  a  few  pages 
could  be  devoted  to  generosity,  a  few  to  unselfishness,  to 
bravery,  to  truthfulness,  to  honesty,  etc.  This  scrap-book 
in  time  will  become  very  valuable,  for  it  will  contain,  not 
only  the  clippings  and  stories  collected  from  papers,  mag- 
azines, and  books,  but  also  it  will  be  the  preserv^ed  record 
of  personal  incidents  in  the  school  and  in  the  experiences 
of  life.  Thus  the  teacher  will  soon  acquire  a  splendid 
fund  of  material  upon  which  he  can  draw  in  carrying  out 
a  plan  of  systematic  moral  instruction.  He  will  utiUze 
daily  incidents  for  immediate  use,  but  will  also  preserve 
them  for  future  classes. 

5.  Make  the  environment  of  a  eJiaraeter  to  teach  morals. 
—  Beautiful  and  pleasant  surroundings  have  a  decided 
effect  upon  moral  character.     Many   children  come  from 


148  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

homes  where  there  is  httle  that  is  pleasing,  hence  the 
greater  necessity  that  the  school  should  be  attractive.  It 
is  made  attractive  by  cleanliness,  by  the  neat  and  variegated 
dress  of  the  children,  by  being  cheerfully  lighted,  and  by 
suitable  pictures  on  the  walls.  The  dark,  uniform  garb  of 
children  in  the  schools  of  France  is  doubtless  economical, 
but  its  sombreness  makes  it  sadly  unattractive.  It  must 
therefore  lack  the  moral  effect  which  the  beautiful  inspires. 
Where  the  majority  of  the  children  in  a  class-room  are  well 
dressed,  the  slovenly  are  stimulated  to  become  neat. 
Children  are  influenced  by  other  children  ;  and  if  the  senti- 
ment of  the  class  is  for  pretty  dress,  there  arc  but  few 
children  that  will  not  be  able  to  bring  their  parents  to 
make  them  also  look  tidy  and  dress  prettily.  When  a 
sentiment  for  tidiness  has  been  secured,  the  pupils  will  gain 
in  self-respect,  which  is  the  foundation  of  good  morals. 

Carefully  selected  pictures,  even  though  but  few  in  num- 
ber, have  a  decided  influence  for  good.  I  have  a  copy  of 
Hoffmann's  celebrated  picture,  "  Christ  Before  the  Doc- 
tors." One  can  never  look  at  this  picture  without  gaining 
nobler  ideals,  without  being  made  better.  No  one  can  esti- 
mate the  influence  of  a  fine  picture,  and  therefore  the  deco- 
ration of  schoolrooms  with  standard  works  of  art  is  educa- 
tive in  the  best  sense.  It  will  have  a  salutary  effect  not 
only  upon  the  children,  but  also  upon  future  generations. 
The  people  of  Italy  and  Germany  have  become  musical 
through  hearing  music  for  hundreds  of  years.  The  teacher 
should  not  attempt  to  cover  the  walls  at  once  with  pic- 
tures for  the  sake  of  filling  the  space.  It  is  better  to 
secure  one  or  two  good  pictures  each  year  than  to  have 
many  that  are  unsuitable  in  character.  By  giving  enter- 
tainments, by  interesting  pupils  and  patrons,  possibly  bv 


SCHOOL   MORALS.  I49 

taking  collections,  funds  can  be  secured  for  this  purpose. 
And  the  greater  the  interest  that  is  awakened  in  the 
school  and  in  the  community,  the  more  the  pictures  will  be 
appreciated.  While  copies  of  standard  works  of  art  are 
desirable,  no  great  expense  need  be  involved.  Excellent 
copies  of  the  finest  pictures  can  now  be  had  at  small  cost. 

The  frames  selected  should  be  plain,  so  as  not  to  collect 
dust  and  so  as  to  be  easily  cleaned.  Historical  and  classi- 
cal pictures  should  be  explained  to  the  pupils,  and  very 
valuable  lessons  can  be  taught  from  them.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  presence  of  pictures  will  exert  a  decided 
moral  influence  upon  the  children.  Works  of  art  refine 
and  ennoble,  and  the  schoolroom  that  is  decorated  with 
them  becomes  a  beautiful,  attractive,  and  home-like  place, 
in  which  the  children  take  pride,  and  where  they  are 
inspired  to  higher  and  nobler  ideals. 

6.  Select  moral  lessons  from  history  mid  literature.  —  I 
once  heard  the  story  of  Joseph  and  his  brethren  told  to  a 
class  of  six-year-old  boys.  It  was  in  a  public  school  in  the 
city  of  Munich.  A  series  of  lessons  from  the  life  of  this 
great  leader  had  previously  been  given,  and  this  particular 
lesson  was  that  of  Joseph  revealing  himself  to  his  brethren, 
one  of  the  most  powerful  and  pathetic  scenes  recorded  in 
history  or  literature.  It  was  the  moment  when  Joseph,  hav- 
ing sent  from  the  room  all  but  his  brethren,  said :  "  I  am 
Joseph,  your  brother,  whom  ye  sold  into  Egypt.  Now, 
therefore,  be  not  grieved,  nor  angry  with  yourselves,  that 
ye  sold  me  hither ;  for  God  did  send  me  before  you  to  pre- 
serve life."  The  teacher  briefly  reviewed  the  whole  his- 
tory that  led  up  to  the  event  of  the  day's  lesson.  The 
embarrassment,  the  fear,  the  remorse  of  the  brethren  were 
vividly  pictured  and  their  sin  pointed  out.     Then  the  gen- 


I  ro  A   xN'EW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

erosity,  the  forgiveness,  the  fiUal  affection  of  Joseph  were 
dwelt  upon.  Joseph's  reassurances  to  his  kinsmen  that  no 
harm  should  come  to  them,  and  his  excuses  for  their  con- 
duct as  being  the  means  under  the  providence  of  God  of 
the  salvation  of  the  family  of  Jacob,  were  discussed.  The 
teacher  told  the  story  with  such  simplicity  and  earnestness 
that  all  of  the  boys  were  deeply  impressed.  His  treatment 
of  the  subject  prepared  his  pupils  for  the  reception  of  the 
most  effective  lessons  in  morals.  It  produced  an  impres- 
sion upon  the  children  such  as  is  rarely  witnessed.  Is 
there  any  reason  why  this  same  story  might  not  be  used 
in  the  American  schools  as  a  means  of  moral  instruction  ? 
There  are  other  stories  from  the  same  source  that  offer 
most  valuable  material  for  the  teaching  of  morals ;  indeed, 
there  is  no  book  that  furnishes  so  many  and  such  appropri- 
ate stories  for  moral  lessons  as  the  Bible. 

Incidents  from  the  life  of  Washington,  Lincoln,  Glad- 
stone, Livingstone,  Florence  Nightingale,  Frances  E.  Wil- 
lard,  and  a  host  of  others  can  be  utilized,  while  history  is 
rich  in  events  that  can  be  used  in  imparting  moral  lessons. 
Here,  again,  the  value  of  the  scrap-book  is  evident.  Suit- 
able material  for  use  in  the  school  could  be  collected  and 
classified  until  the  teacher  has  an  abundance  of  material 
from  which  to  select  as  occasion  requires. 

7.  Be  zvatchful  of  tJie  pupils  at  recess. — \\'l'ien  boys  and 
girls  mingle  freely  at  recess  the  teacher  should  be  alert  to 
prevent  any  unseemliness.  I  think  it  well  to  let  pupils  of 
the  two  sexes  play  together  within  certain  self-evident  lim- 
itations. Boys  become  gentler  and  girls  less  prudish  by 
associating  with  the  opposite  sex.  Whenever  possible,  the 
teacher  should  be  out  of  doors  with  the  children,  not  to 
interfere  with   or  to  control  their  games,  but   to  be  one 


SCHOOL   MORALS, 


^51 


among  the  children,  enjoying  perfect  freedom  with  them. 
They  must  not  feel  that  the  teacher  is  on  the  playground 
to  be  a  spy  over  their  actions,  but  rather  to  gain  the  same 
relaxation  from  school  duties  that  the  children  are  seekinsr. 
Nevertheless,  the  presence  of  the  teacher  among  the  chil- 
dren will  prevent  wrong-doing,  and  will  raise  the  moral  tone 
of  the  children.  Profanity,  vulgarity,  fighting,  and  other 
evils  will  be  checked.  Even  when  not  out  of  doors  at 
recess  the  teacher  must  be  watchful  as  to  what  is  going 
on.  Just  how  far  the  teacher  may  go  in  his  freedom  of 
intercourse  with  his  pupils  depends  upon  his  own  personal- 
ity. A  young  teacher  made  a  practice  of  playing  with  his 
pupils  at  recess  on  terms  of  perfect  equality.  A  member 
of  his  school  board,  who  had  formerly  been  captain  of  a 
whaling-vessel,  said  to  him  :  "  Maybe  you  can  make  this 
work  in  your  school,  but  it  w^ouldn't  do  on  shipboard. 
There  you  would  lose  all  control  of  your  men,"  "  We  are 
not  on  shipboard,"  replied  the  young  man ;  "  I  think  we 
can  make  it  work."  It  did  work  in  this  case.  His  free- 
dom with  his  pupils  at  recess  strengthened  rather  than 
weakened  his  discipline  in  the  school.  In  the  school  he 
was  the  master ;  on  the  playground  he  was  one  of  their 
number.  Still,  his  presence  exerted  a  strong  moral  influ- 
ence at  recess.  Each  teacher,  however,  must  know  his 
own  strength  and  his  own  limitations  in  this  matter. 

The  teacher  must  frequently  examine  the  outhouses  and 
see  that  they  are  kept  in  good  order.  Vulgar  inscriptions 
must  be  removed  at  once,  and  perfect  cleanliness  insisted 
upon.  A  failure  to  attend  to  these  things  will  be  produc- 
tive of  most  evil  consequences,  and  will  undo  much  of  the 
good  work  that  i::  done  by  other  means  of  moral  instruo 
tion. 


152 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


8.  TcacJi  the  children  to  be  helpful.  —  A  great  blessing 
comes  to  one  who  is  helpful  to  others.  There  is  no  better 
means  than  this  of  teaching  the  lesson  of  unselfishness. 
Boys  are  often  won  to  good  order  and  moral  practice  by 
being  set  to  do  something  either  for  the  teacher  or  for 
some  one  else.  I  once  attended  a  religious  service  among 
boys  from  the  slums  of  a  city.  To  one  boy  was  assigned 
the  duty  of  passing  the  hymn-books  to  the  people  as  they 
came  in  ;  another  ushered  the  people  to  their  seats  ;  a  third 
selected  and  announced  the  hymns.  I  noticed  that  the 
boys  who  appeared  to  be  the  ringleaders  of  the  crowd  were 
the  ones  selected  to  perform  these  various  duties.  Good 
order  prevailed  ;  indeed,  these  boys  acted  as  though  they 
were  responsible  for  good  order,  and  they  would  brook  no 
disturbance.  Probably  the  boys  who  received  the  most 
good  from  the  meeting  were  those  who  were  called  upon 
to  help.  The  wise  teacher  will  make  use  of  such  means 
to  assist  in  maintaining  discipline,  and  it  will  be  found  to 
exercise  a  decided  moral  influence. 

One  of  the  blessings  of  a  large  family  of  children  is  that 
the  older  ones  are  called  upon  to  assist  in  the  care  of  the 
younger.  There  is  an  abundance  of  opportunity  to  do 
something  for  some  one  else  that  is  lacking  in  the  small 
family.  The  necessity  of  setting  a  good  example,  of  as- 
suming responsibility,  of  taking  care  of  younger  brothers 
and  sisters,  gives  the  older  members  of  the  family,  at  least, 
practice  in  right-living  and  right-doing.  It  is  a  good  thing 
for  a  child  that  he  be  looked  up  to  as  a  model  of  moral 
practice. 

The  turning-point  in  tlie  school  life  of  Tom  Brown  at 
Rugby,  and  perhaps  of  his  whole  life,  came  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the   second  term,  when  little  George  Arthur,  a 


SCHOOL  MORALS.  I  53 

new  boy,  was  placed  under  his  charge.  The  story  of  his 
guardianship  of  the  younger  boy  is  the  story  of  Tom's 
moral  awakening  and  development.  Probably  nothing 
could  have  been  done  so  effectually  to  lead  Tom  Brown 
to  take  a  high  moral  stand  as  to  give  him  charge  of  another 
boy  to  whom  he  was  to  be  an  example.  Children  should 
be  taught  that  he  who  lives  to  himself  alone  never  receives 
the  largest  blessings  of  life  ;  that  he  is  poor  indeed.  The 
sublimest  lesson  of  the  Divine  Master's  life  was  that  of 
self-sacrifice.  He  gave  Himself  for  others  ;  and  only  as 
men  learn  this  principle  and  follow  His  example,  can  they 
enter  into  moral  and  spiritual  life. 

Mrs.  Evans  summarizes  the  means  of  moral  training 
most  admirably  as  follows  : 

1.  Systematic  required  instruction. 

2.  Personal  influence  of  the  teacher,  with  incidental 
teaching. 

3.  School  discipline  in  general. 

4.  Public  sentiment  in  and  out  of  the  school. 

I  have  intimated  that  it  does  not  seem  best  to  place  the 
teaching  of  morals  on  the  same  basis  as  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, reading,  etc.  ;  that  it  should  not  have  a  place  in  the 
curriculum  or  in  the  fixed  daily  program.  Nevertheless, 
the  teacher  should  have  a  definite  plan  in  his  own  mind, 
which  he  should  carry  out  at  different  times  and  in  a  man- 
ner and  with  material  suited  to  the  age  of  different  pupils. 
An  excellent  scheme  has  been  formulated  by  Superintend- 
ent J.  W.  Carr  of  Anderson,  Ind.,  and  is  printed  in  his 
Manual  as  a  part  of  the  course  of  study.  Concerning  this 
Mr.  Carr  writes  me  :  "  If  you  have  time  to  read  this  course 
carefully,  you  will  observe  that  comparatively  little  time  is 
given  to  formal  instruction  in  this  subject.     We  depend 


154 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


chiefly  upon  the  mfluences  of  the  teacher  using  the  most 
opportune  moment  to  impress  the  lessons  desired.  We 
endeavor  to  train  the  children  to  practise  as  many  of  the 
virtues  mentioned  in  the  outhne  as  possible.  I  think  the 
work  has  been  reasonably  satisfactory." 

Through  Superintendent  Carr's  courtesy,  I  present  this 
valuable  course  in  full  in  the  Appendix.  Though  it  may 
be  impracticable  to  incorporate  it  in  the  required  work  of 
the  pupils,  it  will  certainly  be  a  guide  for  the  teacher  which 
will  enable  him  to  deal  with  this  important  subject  in  a 
systematic  and  thorough  manner. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

CAUTIONS   TO   TEACHERS.! 

The  normal  school  presents  to  its  students  many  theories 
which  later  they  will  apply  in  their  own  schools.  In  its 
training-school  it  teaches  them  how  to  put  theory  into 
practice.  Doubtless  the  young  teacher  is  thus  fortified 
against  many  errors,  and  he  consequently  will  be  saved 
from  mistakes  that  otherwise  would  be  made.  But  the 
training-school  with  its  critic  teachers  and  supervisors,  its 
small  classes,  its  abundance  of  material  to  work  with,  its 
ideal  conditions  as  a  model  school,  is  a  very  different  place 
from  the  public  school  where  the  young  teacher  is  likely 
to  get  a  position.  In  the  latter  case  the  responsibility,  the 
discipline,  the  instruction,  the  success  of  the  school  rest 
upon  the  young  beginner.  This  is  true  in  a  large  sense 
even  where  there  is  a  principal  to  give  advice  and  assist- 
ance when  needed.  The  principal  must  expect  a  certain 
amount  of  disciplinary  power,  independence,  and  resource- 
fulness from  his  assistants. 

The  teacher  is  tried  by  other  standards  now  —  not  by 
the  judgment  of  the  critic  teacher  whose  good  opinion  is 
so  important  to  him,  but  by  his  success  in  maintaining 
discipline,  by  his  power  of  interesting  his  pupils,  by  his 
ability  to  bring  them  forward  in  their  work.  No  training- 
school  experience,  however  ideal,  can  be  quite  the  same  as 
that  of  the  actual  school  where  the  young  graduate  finds 

1  See  also  my  "  foundations  of  Education,  p.  21. 


1^6  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

his  life-work.  This  is  not  to  be  construed  as  a  criticism  of 
the  training-school.  The  experience  obtained  there,  even 
though  affected  by  so  many  limitations,  is  a  great  help  in 
the  education  of  the  teacher.  It  will  doubtless  save  him 
from  a  great  many  mistakes,  and  may  possibly  be  the  lina] 
and  most  valuable  feature  of  the  nomial  school  course  in 
insuring  success.  Yet,  with  all  the  help  that  the  training- 
school  can  give,  and  with  all  that  the  normal  school  can  do, 
some  of  their  graduates  fail  when  it  comes  to  the  actual 
work  of  teaching.  But  not  all  those  who  graduate  from 
theological  seminaries  turn  out  to  be  successful  preachers  ; 
all  who  complete  the  courses  of  the  medical  schools  do  not 
become  skilful  physicians.  The  young  teacher  must  work 
out  his  own  pedagogical  salvation  in  his  own  schoolroom. 
If  he  has  the  help  of  a  thorough  professional  training,  he 
is  much  more  likely  to  succeed.  The  lessons  learned  in 
the  professional  school  will  aid  him  in  avoiding  many  pit- 
falls, and  the  experiences  of  others  will  fortify  him  against 
many  errors. 

I  have  spoken  of  normal-trained  teachers.  It  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  teachers  of 
this  country  have  not  had  the  advantages  of  the  normal 
school,  and  therefore  a  large  proportion  of  them  need 
advice  in  the  management  of  their  chai'ges.  It  is  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  young  teachers  of  both  of  these  classes, 
—  namely,  (i)  those  who  have  received  training  in  a  pro- 
fessional school  and  yet  have  had  but  little  practice  in 
teaching,  and  (2)  those  who  have  begun  to  teach  without 
professional  training, — that  this  book  has  been  written. 
There  are  common  errors  from  which  these  young  teachers 
may  be  spared.  Let  us  turn  our  attention  to  some  of  the 
gravest  of  these  errors. 


CAUTIONS   10   TEACHERS.  I  57 

1.  Never  Use  Sarcasm.  —  There  are  two  reasons  why- 
sarcasm  should  not  be  used  in  the  school :  first,  it  is  bad 
for  the  child ;  and  second,  it  is  bad  for  the  teacher. 
Sarcasm  is  a  cruel  weapon  at  best,  and  young  children 
should  never  be  subjected  to  its  blighting,  poisonous  sting. 
Children  are  by  nature  generous,  frank,  sincere.  Let  the 
teacher  be  the  last  one  to  make  them  bitter,  suspicious, 
callous.  As  it  is,  they  will  soon  enough  encounter  the 
sneers  and  suspicions  of  the  evil-minded,  and  the  innuen- 
does of  the  venomous.  Let  sweet  and  generous-spirited 
childhood  be  encouraged  in  its  open-heartedness,  and  let 
the  school  never  be  guilty  of  supplanting  this  quality  with 
the  rancor  and  suspicion  which  the  use  of  sarcasm  gene- 
rates. Life  will  have  enough  of  bitterness  without  the 
teacher  introducing  it,  and  it  will  come  all  too  soon  with- 
out being  fostered  in  the  early  years  of  school. 

For  his  own  sake  the  teacher  cannot  afford  to  use  sar- 
casm. It  reacts  upon  his  own  soul  and  life.  Instead  of 
writing  upon  the  teacher's  brow  peace,  joy,  and  good-will 
towards  all  m.en,  it  wTites  hatred,  suspicion,  envy,  \dndic- 
tiveness.  "I  love  to  look  at  that  man's  face;  it  is  a 
benediction,"  said  a  friend  to  me  as  the  late  Dr.  E.  A. 
Sheldon  of  the  Oswego  Normal  School  approached  us. 
Dr.  Sheldon  could  never  have  made  use  of  sarcasm.  It 
would  have  reacted  upon  himself,  and  written  malice  and 
hatred  upon  his  countenance,  instead  of  benignity  and 
kindUness.  "  Out  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart  the 
mouth  speaketh."  Every  teacher  has  to  meet  things  that 
try  his  patience  ;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  heart  may  not  grow  mellow  with  the  years  if  it 
does  not  harbor  bitterness.  The  person  whose  spirit  is 
kindly  and  whose  words  are    free  from    sarcasm  will  be 


If8  A    NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

loved  and  cherished.  Such  a  person  will  be  welcome  in 
the  society  of  young  and  old  because  of  the  sunshine  that 
he  carries  with  him.  Therefore  for  his  own  advantage,  as 
well  as  for  the  sake  of  the  children,  let  the  teacher  never 
indulge  in  the  use  of  sarcasm. 

2.  Avoid  Threatening  and  Scolding.  — Many  of  the  rea- 
sons for  not  using  sarcasm  apply  equally  well  in  the  matter 
of  scolding.  It  angers  and  imbitters  the  pupils,  and  reacts 
upon  the  teacher's  own  disposition.  Children  should  be 
told  plainly  and  yet  kindly  what  is  expected  of  them,  and, 
if  they  deserve  it,  reprimanded.  A  reprimand  does  not 
need  to  be  given  in  a  spiteful  or  a  censorious  manner.  It 
will  carry  greater  weight  if  administered  in  a  calm  tone  of 
voice.  The  wrong  done  should  be  plainly  set  forth  and 
the  reason  for  punishment  explained.  Reproof  is  far  more 
likely  to  be  effective  if  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  is  that  of 
one  who  is  grieved  over  the  perpetration  of  a  wrong  rather 
than  of  one  that  is  out  of  patience.  If  given  in  a  quiet 
manner,  and  yet  with  firmness,  putting  the  case  fairly,  it 
will  have  a  tendency  to  cause  the  child  to  see  the  serious- 
ness of  his  error  and  make  him  desire  to  amend.  Scold- 
ing leads  him  to  become  indifferent,  or,  perhaps  worse, 
excites  him  to  stubbornness.  The  reflex  influence  of  scold- 
ing upon  the  one  who  indulges  in  it  is  by  no  means  the 
least  serious  of  the  evils  occasioned. 

A  threat  carries  with  it  the  promise  of  a  penalty.  "If 
you  do  that  again,  I  shall  send  you  home,"  threatens  the 
teacher.  Now,  it  may  be  necessary  to  suspend  the  child 
from  school  for  repeated  offences,  warning  having  been 
given.  But  the  warning  need  not  be  a  threat.  A  good 
general  always  provides  for  a  retreat.     There  may  be  cir- 


CAUTIONS   TO   TEACHERS. 


159 


cumstances  connected  with  a  child's  act  which  would  miti- 
gate the  punishment.  Hence  the  teacher  should  provide 
a  way  of  retreat  without  endangering  his  discipUne.  For 
that  reason  he  should  not  definitely  fix  a  punishment  for  a 
certain  offence,  should  not  threaten.  Nevertheless,  if  the 
punishment  is  deserved,  it  should  be  just  as  sure  as  if  it 
had  been  threatened. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  a  warning  and  a 
threat.  A  warning  calls  attention  to  an  evil,  and  points  out 
what  the  ultimate  consequences  may  be  if  it  is  persisted 
in ;  a  threat  carries  with  it  a  definite  purpose  to  inflict  a 
certain  punishment  for  a  given  offence.  The  teacher  must 
not  hesitate  to  perform  his  duty,  but  it  is  better  that  he  be 
unhampered  by  previous  threats,  which  narrow  his  limita- 
tions as  to  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted.  It  is  better  to 
look  at  an  offence  from  the  standpoint  of  the  present,  with 
all  of  the  circumstances  that  led  to  its  commission  before 
the  teacher,  rather  than  from  the  position  of  an  anticipated 
wrong. 

The  viewpoint  will  be  more  accurate  and  more  just, 
consequently  there  is  less  likelihood  of  mistakes.  Better 
still,  there  is  greater  freedom  to  exercise  the  quality  of 
mercy,  and  live  up  to  a  principle  previously  enunciated, 
namely,  the  least  punishment  that  will  effect  the  cure  is 
the  right  punishment.  Scolding  and  threatening  should  be 
avoided  in  the  school,  that  justice  may  be  tempered  with 
mercy ;  furthermore,  that  the  teacher  may  not  acquire  an 
acrimonious  and  bitter  spirit. 

3,  Keep  Your  Word.  —  If  pupils  are  to  be  taught  truth- 
fulness, the  teacher  must  be  an  example  in  act  and  word. 
They  must  learn  that  every  promise  of  the  teacher  will  be 


l6o  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

kept,  and  that  they  can  absokitely  rely  upon  what  he  says. 
''  You  would  do  what  you  promised  even  if  the  world  came 
to  an  end,"  rather  petulantly  remarked  a  boy  to  his  teacher 
who  rigidly  kept  his  word.  But  the  boy  respected  this 
teacher  because  he  found  that  the  teacher's  word  could  be 
relied  upon.  This  quality  made  that  teacher  a  most  potent 
moral  force  in  the  community,  not  only  among  his  pupils, 
but  also  among  their  parents.  Nothing  is  so  destructive  to 
discipline  as  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  his 
own  promises.  "  You  will  remain  after  school  to-night," 
says  the  teacher  to  a  pupil.  The  teacher  forgets  his  com- 
mand, and  the  pupil  slips  away  unnoticed.  An  implied 
promise  is  contained  in  the  command,  and  to  ignore  or 
forget  it  is  to  invite  a  repetition  of  the  act,  and  bring  the 
disciplinary  requirements  of  the  school  into  disrepute.  If 
the  teacher  cannot  rely  upon  his  memory,  he  should  make 
a  note  of  his  promises  so  that  they  will  not  be  forgotten. 

In  all  of  his  financial  dealings  the  teacher  should  be  the 
soul  of  honor.  He  knows  exactly  what  his  income  is,  and 
therefore  he  is  aware  of  the  amount  he  may  spend.  He  also 
knows  when  he  can  pay,  and  his  promises  to  pay  must  be 
promptly  met.  This  ought  to  be  said  of  every  person,  but 
I  am  addressing  teachers  whose  example  as  well  as  teaching 
should  be  righteous  and  honest.  The  eyes  of  the  whole 
community  are  upon  him,  and  therefore  his  financial  integ- 
rity should  be  beyond  question.  This  view  of  a  teacher's 
obligations  is  true,  however  small  his  salary  may  be.  He 
must  live  within  his  means,  and  thus  bring  no  reproach 
upon  his  profession. 

4.  Do  Not  be  Hasty  in  Condemning  a  Child.  —  In  most 
cases  where  a  serious  evil  has  been  committed,  it  is  better 


CAUTIONS   TO   TEACHERS.  l6l 

to  defer  action  for  a  day  or  two.  This  will  prevent  a 
decision  being  made  during  the  heat  of  anger,  and  it  will  also 
remove  the  charge  of  anger  when  none  exists.  Calmer 
judgment  will  control,  and  the  punishment  will  be  more 
likely  to  be  just,  and  possibly  less  severe.  This  delay 
affords  time  to  inquire  into  home  conditions,  and  very  often 
such  investigation  will  bring  to  light  circumstances  that 
mitigate  and  perhaps  entirely  excuse  the  offence. 

A  boy  was  frequently  late  at  school.  After  many 
remonstrances  on  the  part  of  his  teacher,  and  the  fault  not 
being  corrected,  he  was  sent  to  the  principal.  The  boy  sat 
for  some  time  in  the  office,  until  finally  the  principal 
turned  to  him  and  said  in  a  most  kindly  manner,  "  Thomas, 
tell  me  why  you  are  so  often  late  at  school."  "  I  can't  help 
it,"  said  the  boy.  "Does  your  mother  know  of  your  being 
so  often  tardy  ?  "  was  next  asked.  "  My  mother  is  dead," 
replied  the  boy,  bursting  into  tears.  The  principal's  man- 
ner won  the  confidence  of  the  lad  and  he  told  his  whole 
story.  It  was  as  follows :  His  father  was  a  laboring  man, 
who  was  obliged  to  have  his  breakfast  before  six  o'clock  in 
order  that  he  might  go  to  his  day's  work.  The  boy  had  a 
little  sister  four  or  five  years  old,  and  a  grandmother  who 
was  too  feeble  to  assist  in  the  household  duties,  and  often 
too  ill  to  leave  her  bed.  This  boy  arose  very  early, 
assisted  in  getting  breakfast,  dressed  his  sister,  cared  for 
his  grandmother,  and  put  the  house  in  order  after  his 
father  had  gone.  Besides  this,  he  sold  papers  every  morn- 
ing, contributing  several  dollars  a  week  to  the  family  funds. 
This  accounted  for  his  frequent  tardiness.  Now,  a  hasty 
judgment  might  have  brought  punishment  upon  a  child 
who  was  doing  noble,  self-sacrificing  work,  and  who 
deserved    credit    for    attempting   to  go  to  school  at  all. 


1 62  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Such  deliberate  inquiry  will  often  modify  the  punishment 
of  a  child,  and,  as  our  illustration  shows,  sometimes  obviate 
it  altogether.  It  may  also  bring  the  home  into  closer 
touch  with  the  purpose  and  spirit  of  the  school. 

5o  Use  Judgment  in  Giving  and  Withholding  Assistance. 

—  A  father,  not  long  ago,  said  to  me:  "There  is  some- 
thing radically  wrong  with  our  schools.  Why,  I  have  to 
spend  one  or  two  hours  every  evening  in  showing  my  chil- 
dren how  to  do  their  school-work.  I  am  made  a  slave 
because  teachers  do  not  attend  to  their  duty.  What  right 
have  they  to  send  children  home  knowing  absolutely  noth- 
ing as  to  the  way  to  prepare  their  lessons,  thus  throwing 
the  responsibility  of  teaching  them  upon  the  parents  ?  I 
am  tired  of  the  whole  scheme." 

Not  many  da}'s  after  that  another  father  said  to  me : 
"  My  boys  have  nothing  to  do  at  home.  They  don't  study, 
and  they  tell  me  that  there  is  no  need  of  their  studying  at 
home,  for  the  teacher  does  all  the  work  for  them  in  school. 
I  had  to  study  when  I  went  to  school,  and  I  am  suspicious 
of  a  school  that  does  not  make  the  pupils  study.  There  is 
something  wrong  about  this." 

Here  we  have  two  entirely  divergent  views  by  intelligent 
men  in  the  same  city,  though  their  children  did  not  attend 
the  same  school.  Doubtless  both  exaggerated  somewhat 
in  their  statements  of  the  situation  as  they  found  it,  but 
each  was  intelligently  interested  in  the  progress  of  his 
children.  It  seems  to  me  that  in  these  criticisms  are  indi- 
cated two  great  dangers  in  modern  methods  of  instruction, 

—  that  of  withholding  all  assistance,  and  that  of  helping  too 
much.  Now,  it  is  not  likely  that  any  teacher  would  know- 
ingly set  tasks  that  require  daily  help  from  outside,  nor  is 


CAUTIONS   TO   TEACHERS.  I  6 J 

it  likely  that  any  teacher  intends  to  do  so  much  of  the 
child's  work  that  little  is  left  for  him  to  accomplish.  But 
the  danger  is  there,  and  every  teacher  should  be  cautioned 
as  to  the  manner  of  meeting  it.  These  are  not  by  any 
means  isolated  cases  of  complaint.  There  are  abundant 
evidences  that  both  of  these  extrem.es  are  frequently  met. 
Where  a  parent  encounters  either  of  these  faults,  he  has 
just  cause  for  complaint.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  teacher  to  instruct,  and  no  parent  can  be 
expected  to  spend  his  evenings  over  his  children's  school- 
tasks.  The  teacher  who  habitually  sends  his  pupils  home 
for  help  is  shirking  his  duty.  In  the  second  case,  if  the 
teacher  does  the  work  for  the  child,  as  he  is  tempted  to 
do,  being  able  to  perform  it  quicker  and  more  easily,  he  is 
robbing  the  child  of  the  opportunity  and  the  pleasure  of 
learning,  for  without  self-activity  there  is  no  education. 

The  key  to  the  whole  situation  lies  in  the  proper  gi\nng 
and  withholding  of  assistance.  There  is  no  higher  test  of 
the  skill  and  judgment  of  a  teacher  than  this.  Herbart 
lays  stress  upon  educative  instruction  {Erzie}ie7ide-Unte7'- 
richt).  The  child  learns  through  the  instruction  given  by 
the  teacher,  the  method  most  commonly  followed  by  Ger- 
man teachers  to  the  present  time.  Froebel,  on  the  other 
hand,  gives  emphasis  to  the  self-activity  of  the  child  in  his 
method  of  teaching.  The  true  method  doubtless  employs 
both  of  these  ideas  —  instruction,  which  leads  and  directs 
the  child  so  that  he  will  be  stimulated  and  interested,  and 
so  that  he  will  not  take  false  steps  ;  and  self-activity,  which 
also  needs  directing.  The  teacher  must  give  such  instruc- 
tion concerning  the  lesson  as  will  direct  the  pupils  how 
and  what  to  do,  w^iether  in  seat -work  or  home-work,  and 
then  the  pupils  themselves  must  be  required  to  perform 


J  64  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  work.  Parents  should  not  be  called  upon  to  aid  ot 
to  instruct  their  children ;  they  should,  however,  see  to  it 
that  certain  hours  are  set  apart  for  home  study,  and  require 
their  children  faithfully  to  employ  this  time.  More  than 
this  cannot  be  asked,  and  more  than  this  the  teacher  should 
not  expect.  If  it  is  found  that  the  work  assigned  is  too 
difficult  for  the  children  to  do,  let  them  take  it  back  to  the 
scho  1  for  further  assistance. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  must  not  do  any  work 
for  the  pupils  that  they  can  perform  with  a  reasonable 
amount  of  effort.  The  tendency  of  modern  schools  and 
modern  methods  is  to  offer  too  much  help  to  the  pupil,  so 
that  he  fails  to  gain  the  persistence  and  diligence  which 
are  necessary  in  surmounting  obstacles.  Life  is  made  up 
of  struggle,  and  the  child  must  not  be  freed  from  meeting 
a  reasonable  amount  of  trial  in  his  school-work.  The  pupil 
who  easily  succumbs,  whenever  he  meets  a  serious  diffi- 
culty in  his  lessons,  is  not  likely  to  become  a  man  w^ho, 
when  overtaken  by  adversity,  arises  from  the  ruins  and 
courageously  begins  again.  This  quality  of  manhood  is 
not  to  be  gained  by  effeminate  methods.  It  is  gained  only 
through  persistence,  and  pupils  must  be  taught  to  over- 
come difficulties  through  their  own  efforts.  Then,  too,  the 
joy,  the  triumph  of  victory  will  be  theirs. 

But  there  often  comes  a  time  when  help  should  be  given 
to  the  child,  when  to  continue  longer  upon  a  task  would 
be  unprofitable.  Just  when  that  point  is  reached,  it  is 
difficult  to  determine.  The  temperament  of  the  child 
must  be  taken  into  account,  A  naturally  persistent  and 
ambitious  child  may  spend  more  time  upon  a  task  than  is 
profitable ;  may,  as  it  were,  waste  time.  One  that  is  lazy 
or  too  easily  discouraged  must  be  held   to  his  task.     In 


CAUTIONS   TO   TEACHERS.  I  65 

general,  we  may  say,  that  the  time  for  assistance  has  ar- 
rived when  the  point  of  discouragement  is  reached.  What 
the  child  himself  can  accomplish  with  reasonable  effort  he 
must  be  allowed  to  do  if  ambitious,  and  required  to  com- 
plete if  lazy.  When  the  teacher  has  the  wisdom  and  tact  to 
bring  about  these  conditions,  the  two  forms  of  complaint  we 
have  been  discussing  will  no  longer  have  any  justification. 

6.  Have  Patience  with  the  Dull  Child.  —  Most  children 
at  some  time  in  life  pass  through  a  period  in  which  both 
the  physical  and  the  intellectual  powers  are  below  the 
normal  There  are  physiological  causes  for  this  which  the 
study  of  childhood  in  recent  years  has  revealed  and  par- 
tially explained.  Every  teacher  has  had  pupils  who  have 
been  bright  and  efficient  in  their  school-work,  but  who 
came  to  a  time  when  it  was  almost  impossible  for  them  to 
learn.  Such  pupils  are  likely  to  be  denominated  dull, 
especially  if  through  changes  of  teachers  or  through  pro- 
motion the  teacher  does  not  have  them  long  enough  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  their  condition.  The  management 
of  such  cases  requires  great  patience  and  skill  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  until  the  child  regains  his  health  and  vigor 
and  his  apparent  dulness  passes  away. 

Even  if  the  child  is  naturally  dull  he  is  deserving  of  the 
best  of  attention.  To  teach  the  bright,  interesting  pupil 
is  very  easy ;  but  to  arouse  and  interest  those  that  are 
dull,  tests  the  teacher's  power.  The  latter  requires  skill, 
patience,  tact,  good  judgment,  zeal,  versatility.  The  re- 
sults, however,  often  more  than  compensate  for  the  extra 
trouble.  The  dull  cliild  learns  persistence,  perseverance, 
value  of  effort,  through  the  hard  work  that  he  must  do  to 
gain  the  victory.     One  may  easily  write  his  name  on  the 


1 66  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

sand  at  the  seashore  ;  but  the  rising  tide,  the  breath  of 
wind,  or  the  passing  foot-tread,  just  as  easily  obliterates  it. 
To  write  one's  name  on  marble  or  granite  requires  great 
patience,  but  how  enduring  is  the  inscription  !  Just  so 
the  mind  that  easily  takes  an  impression  is  apt  easily  to 
lose  it ;  and  the  mind  that  receives  the  impression  only  by 
hard  and  persistent  effort,  retains  it. 

Every  old  teacher  can  testify  that  some  of  his  most 
promising  pupils  have  failed  in  life,  while  some  of  his  dull 
ones  have  attained  great  success.  The  former  depended 
upon  their  brilliancy,  and  expected  to  win  without  a  strug- 
gle ;  the  latter  depended  upon  hard  work  through  which 
they  compelled  success. 

Peter  Cooper  was  called  a  dunce  at  school,  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  and  James  Watt  were  regarded  as  blockheads, 
and  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  considered  half-witted.  General 
Grant  exhibited  no  brilliant  qualities  either  as  a  child  or  as 
a  cadet  at  West  Point,  and  yet  it  was  his  determination  to 
"fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer"  that 
brought  the  Civil  War  to  a  close. 

Then,  too,  the  teacher  sometimes  meets  pupils  who, 
although  of  excellenc  general  ability,  are  sadly  lacking  in 
ability  to  acquire  some  particular  subject.  Emerson  could 
not  learn  mathematics.  Colonel  Parker  said  that  so  far  as 
music  is  concerned  he  was  "  an  idiot."  "  My  daughter  was 
obliged  to  leave  school  because  her  principal  insisted  upon 
her  studying  mathematics,"  said  a  bank  president.  He 
added,  **  She  simply  could  not  learn  mathematics,  and  she 
inherits  this  defect  from  me."  When  a  defect  is  apparent, 
school  life  should  not  be  made  a  burden  to  a  child  by  per- 
sisting in  his  taking  the  work  which  he  does  not  possess 
the  power  to  grasp 


CAUTIONS    TO   TEACHERS.  1 67 

My  plea  here  is  not  for  the  imbecile  —  he  belongs  in  the 
school  for  the  feeble-minded  —  but  for  the  slow,  the 
plodding,  the  dull  child,  who  deserves,  and  so  often  proves 
himself  worthy  of,  an  opportunity.  Education  is  a  birth- 
right of  every  person,  and  it  must  not  be  denied  to  the 
dullard  any  more  than  to  the  child  of  brilliant  parts.  Mar- 
den  says :  "  The  world  has  been  very  kind  to  many  who 
were  once  known  as  dunces  or  blockheads  after  they  have 
become  very  successful ;  but  it  was  very  cross  to  them 
while  they  were  struggling  through  discouragement  and 
misinterpretation.  Such  lives  do  not  show,  however,  that 
a  numskull  is  sure  to  climb  to  the  top.  Because  the  last 
boy  in  his  class  became  the  great  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
there  is  no  reason  to  conclude  that  the  last  boy  in  the 
next  class,  or  the  next,  must  become  anything  great  at  all 
There  must  be  some  life  in  the  boy,  or  he  will  not  rise 
under  any  circumstances  until  the  day  appointed  for  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead.  If  he  starts  out  in  life  as  a 
failure,  he  will  end  as  one,  unless  he  gets  thoroughly  waked 
up  in  some  way.  Give  every  boy  and  every  girl  a  fair 
chance  and  reasonable  encouragement,  and  do  not  condemn 
them  because  of  even  a  large  degree  of  downright  stupid- 
ity ;  for  many  so-called  good-for-nothing  boys,  blockheads, 
numskulls,  dullards,  or  dunces,  were  only  boys  out  of  their 
places,  round  boys  forced  into  square  holes." 

7.  Have  Eyes  that  Sometimes  See  Not.  —  Children,  like 
the  young  of  all  animal  Hfe,  are  full  of  play.  Much  of  the 
mischief  of  children  is  entirely  innocent,  and  it  should, 
therefore,  often  be  overlooked  in  school  life.  The  teacher 
has  only  to  guard  against  the  "  young  steeds  "  getting  the 
bit  between  the  teeth  and  running  away  with  him.     Each 


1 68  A  NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

teacher  must  be  a  law  unto  himself,  as  to  the  liberties  he 
may  allow  his  pupils.  An  occasional  tightening  of  the 
reins  will  suffice  to  show  who  is  in  command.  Teachers 
who  see  evil  in  every  bit  of  fun,  and  who  try  to  crush  the 
overflowing  spirits  of  the  children,  are  bound  to  have 
trouble  in  discipline.  They  soon  acquire  the  habit  of  nag- 
ging, and  their  pupils  learn  how  to  annoy  them.  A  great 
deal  of  innocent  mischief  must  not  be  scoi  by  the  teacher. 
A  young  teacher  who  had  charge  of  a  corridor  in  a 
boarding-school  frequently  sent  girls  to  the  principal  for 
reprimand.  The  offences  in  the  m.ain  were  trivial  Now, 
when  a  teacher  sends  pupils  too  frequently  to  a  superior 
officer  for  punishment,  the  latter  will  inevitably  reach  the 
conclusion  that  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  teacher, 
for  discipline  is  a  part  of  the  duty  of  every  teacher,  w^hich 
she  cannot  shirk.  After  repeated  cases  had  been  referred 
to  him,  the  principal  began  to  keep  a  record  of  the  stu- 
dents sent  to  him  by  this  teacher  and  of  the  offences  with 
which  they  were  charged.  Having  accumulated  a  long 
list  in  a  few  days,  he  invited  the  teacher  to  his  office  and 
shov^^ed  it  to  her.  She  was  quite  astonished  at  the  number 
and  the  trivial  nature  of  the  offences  when  they  had  been 
show^n  to  her  on  paper.  Then  the  principal  told  her  that 
she  was  seeing  too  much,  that  a  great  deal  that  she  had 
referred  to  him  ought  not  to  have  been  noticed,  and  that 
she  must  learn  not  to  see.  The  young  lady  left  the  office 
feeling  that  her  principal  was  not  supporting  her,  that  she 
was  misunderstood,  and  that  evil  \vould  surely  follow  if  she 
carried  out  his  advice.  But  after  some  reflection,  she 
concluded  to  try  his  remedy.  It  took  some  time  for  her 
to  get  over  her  nervous  alertness,  and  to  learn  to  discrim- 
inate between  what  was  really  bad  and  what  was  imiocent 


CAUTIONS   TO   TEACHERS,  I  69 

and  harmless.  But  she  succeeded  so  far  as  to  be  able  to 
report  after  a  few  weeks  that  she  had  conquered  herself, 
and,  moreover,  that  there  was  a  real  and  decided  improve- 
ment in  the  order  of  her  hall.  She  had  simply  overcome 
the  habit  of  being  "fussy,"  and  had  learned  not  to  see  too 
much. 

Let  there  be  good-fellowship  between  teacher  and 
pupils,  and  let  the  teacher  be  generous  in  excusing  mis- 
chief that  is  not  vicious.  By  this  means,  discipline  will  be 
improved,  evil  will  not  increase,  and  the  work  of  governing 
will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

8.  Remember  that  You  are  Dealing  with  Immortal 
Beings.  —  The  greatest  duty  committed  to  man  is  that  of 
teaching  young  children.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
child  is  not  to  be  trained  as  a  horse  or  a  dog  may  be 
trained,  but  possessing  a  mind,  an  immortal  spirit,  he  is  to 
be  educated.  The  teacher  will  see  in  the  child  great 
possibilities,  and  he  must  take  into  account  not  only  a  life 
of  usefulness  for  perhaps  threescore  years  and  ten,  but 
also  consider  the  child's  immortal  well-being.  This  docs 
not  mean  that  religious  doctrines  and  creeds  are  to  be 
taught  in  the  public  schools,  but  it  does  mean,  in  the  broad- 
est sense,  that  religion  is  to  be  taught.  Most  of  all,  it  will 
be  imparted  by  the  teacher's  own  life,  by  his  reverent  atti- 
tude towards  sacred  things,  by  his  belief  in  the  destiny  and 
inestimable  worth  of  the  human  soul,  and  by  his  apprecia- 
tion of  the  highest  aim  of  education.  Rosenkranz  teaches 
that  education  is  incomplete  if  the  religious  side  of  culture 
is  omitted,  and  every  educational  thinker  must  agree  with 
that  teaching. 

Although  the  doctrinal  side  of  religion  may  not  be  taught 


lyO  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

in  the  American  school  that  is  supported  by  public  taxation, 
it  is  not  claimed  that  doctrines  are  not  essential.  The 
peculiar  tenets  of  each  sect,  where  there  is  no  state  religion, 
must  be  taught  in  the  home  and  in  the  church,  and  not  in 
the  public  school.  These  outside  agencies  may  thus  com- 
plete the  work  of  religious  training. 

But  the  public  school  may  implant  in  the  children  a 
noble  character,  inspire  them  with  a  reverence  for  holy 
things,  teach  them  a  consciousness  of  dependence  upon  an 
All-wise  Being,  and  a  belief  in  their  final  destiny.  This 
is  the  duty  of  the  school,  and  I  believe  that  parents  of  all 
shades  of  belief  will  welcome  such  teaching.  I  believe, 
further,  that  the  time  is  nearly  at  hand  when  they  will 
demand  it  of  the  schools.  It  doubtless  can  be  done  with- 
out arousing  the  spirit  of  sectarianism,  or  awakening  the 
fear  that  cherished  beliefs  will  be  interfered  with.  Whether 
or  not  such  teaching  may  be  allowed,  the  teacher  will  not 
forget  that  the  child  committed  to  his  care  is  an  immortal 
being,  and  by  a  silent,  reverent,  and  consistent  life,  he  will 
lead  his  pupils  towards  the  truth. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOL-WORK. 

The  spirit  of  rivalry  shows  itself  not  only  in  the  school, 
but  also  in  other  phases  of  life.  On  the  playground,  in 
mercantile  and  social  relations,  in  the  home,  even  among 
the  lower  animals,  ambition  is  awakened  by  external  incen- 
tives. The  race-horse  exerts  himself  to  the  greatest  only 
when  he  has  a  rival  or  a  running-mate.  The  athlete 
reaches  his  highest  endeavor  when  pushed  to  the  utmost 
by  a  worthy  opponent.  In  the  United  States  Treasury 
Department  at  Washington  a  most  skilled  and  rapid  work- 
man is  employed  by  the  piece  in  certain  work,  while  the 
others  in  the  same  department  are  employed  on  salary  by 
the  day.  The  first-named  workman  sets  the  pace  for  the 
others,  who  are  led  to  more  rapid  work  in  order  not  to  fall 
too  far  behind  their  leader.  They  are  stimulated  to  greater 
effort  by  his  example. 

This  natural  tendency  to  increased  energy  when  spurred 
by  other  persons  may  be  employed  to  arouse  children  to 
better  school-work  and  to  renewed  efforts  in  acquiring  cor- 
rect habits  of  self-discipline.  How  to  use  this  without 
awakening  envy,  and  how  to  lead  pupils  to  their  best  en- 
deavor, is  an  important  problem.  The  incentives  chosen 
should  be  of  a  nature  to  awaken  generous  rivalry  without 
injuring  other  pupils.  The  competition  in  athletic  sports 
which  goes  so  far  as  to  injure  a  formidable  opponent  in 

171 


lya  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

order  to  "put  him  out  of  the  game,"  cannot  be  defended 
upon  any  ethical  principl'^.  It  should  be  condemned  not 
only  by  the  authorities,  but  also  by  the  student-body  and 
the  contestants  themselves.  That  one  should  endeavor  to 
excel  others  is  perfectly  fair  and  legitimate  ;  but  to  defeat 
them  by  unfair  means,  by  resort  to  brutality,  by  seeking  to 
injure  or  to  destroy,  must  be  discountenanced  as  unsports- 
manlike and  unrighteous.  This  wrong  spirit  can  show 
itself  as  truly  in  the  schoolroom  in  connection  with  studies 
as  upon  the  playground  or  the  athletic  field. 

I  propose  to  discuss  the  principal  incentives  employed 
in  the  school,  and  to  show  how  they  may  be  properly  and 
legitimately  used. 

I.  Emulation.  —  Emulation  as  a  school  incentive  was 
widely  employed  in  former  times.  Some  schools  in  those 
days  reduced  this  to  a  system  —  one  school  would  be  set 
to  rival  another  school,  one  class  to  compete  with  another 
class,  one  pupil  even  to  watch  a  comrade,  not  ahva}'s  in 
open  and  generous  rivalry.  It  is  evident  that  such  prac- 
tices might  be  carried  so  far  as  to  become  dangerous, 
as  doubtless  sometimes  happened.  The  employment  of 
emulation  has  by  no  means  been  abandoned,  particularly 
in  European  schools,  nor  should  it  be,  as  is  shown  in 
the  following  paragraph.  But  to  invite  tale-bearing,  for 
example,  encourages  ungenerous  motives  in  the  informer, 
leading  to  deception  and  intrigue.  Emulation  that  incul- 
cates a  spirit  of  selfishness  and  duplicity  cannot  be  too 
strongly  condemned. 

And  yet,  as  emulation  is  a  natural  instinct,  it  can  be 
used  in  the  school  without  evil  effects.  The  principle  gov- 
erning its  use  should  be  excelling  witJioiit  degradiiig  others. 


INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOL-WORK. 


173 


Especially  may  it  be  employed  with  young  children.  A 
child  reads  a  paragraph.  "  Who  will  try  to  read  this  bet- 
ter ?  "  asks  the  teacher,  and  many  hands  will  be  raised  in 
generous  and  ambitious  rivalry.  Children  are  invited  to 
do  their  best  in  a  written  exercise,  and  the  teacher  selects 
the  best  and  commends  it.  Rapid  and  neat  work  in  num- 
ber is  called  for,  and  the  successful  pupil  is  praised. 
Neatness  in  dress,  in  the  care  of  school-books,  and  of  the 
pupils'  desks,  is  suggested,  and  the  child  most  worthy  re- 
ceives commendation.  A  great  many  opportunities  to  in- 
cite proper  emulation  will  be  found.  Effort  as  well  as 
success  must  be  taken  into  account.  The  success  of  one 
pupil  is  not  dependent  upon  the  degradation  of  another. 
Such  rivalry  is  healthful,  generous,  and  inspiring.  Emula- 
tion can  be  very  properly  used  in  the  school  to  stimulate 
pupils  to  greater  exertion  and  to  arouse  their  ambition,  and 
it  need  not  provoke  their  envy. 

2.  Class  Rank.  —  Most  colleges  in  former  years  laid 
stress  upon  class  rank.  Inasmuch  as  it  has  often  occurred 
that  men  of  high  class  rank  have  failed  to  rank  high  in 
life,  and  men  low  on  the  list  of  the  graduating  class  have 
become  leaders  among  men,  the  wisdom  of  college  ranking 
has  come  to  be  seriously  questioned.  Perhaps  another 
reason  for  discontinuing  the  custom  is  that  the  much 
larger  number  graduated  from  our  colleges  makes  ranking 
according  to  number  impracticable.  The  evils  of  the  sys- 
tem were  obvious.  Some  men  would  sacrifice  every  inter- 
est for  the  sake  of  a  high  rank,  while  others  have  been 
known  to  wreck  their  health  in  their  superhuman  efforts 
to  take  the  highest  rank  in  their  class.  Now,  no  one 
would  discourage  a  student  from  seeking  a  high  standing 


174 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


in  his  classes  ;  but  to  bend  every  energy  to  that  end  with- 
out reference  to  the  perfect  assimilation  of  material,  and 
to  the  detriment  of  health,  is  a  false  incentive.  A  wiser 
plan  has  generally  been  adopted,  in  which  a  few  "  honor 
men  "  are  selected  to  designate  superior  work  and  ability. 

With  children  even  less  stress  should  be  laid  upon  class 
ranking.  For  this  reason  the  use  of  letters  instead  of 
numbers  has  been  adopted.  This  may  be  illustrated  as 
follows :  For  excellent,  E ;  for  good,  G ;  for  fair,  F ;  and 
for  poor,  or  not  passed,  P.  This  scheme  does  not  admit 
of  close  comparison  on  the  part  of  the  children,  and  is 
therefore  to  be  commended.  Thus,  if  one  child  gets  94 
and  another  96  in  some  subject,  there  is  opportunity  for 
them  to  compare  notes,  and  dissatisfaction  may  be  created. 
By  the  use  of  letters  both  would  get  E,  and  there  would 
be  no  cause  for  complaint,  while  the  facts  are  sufficiently 
indicated  for  all  grading  purposes. 

A  form  of  class  ranking  may  serve  as  a  temporary  diver- 
sion ;  for  example,  the  practice  of  "going  up"  in  oral 
spelling.  It  should  be  employed  only  occasionally,  and  it 
may  be  used  as  a  kind  of  game  ;  at  the  same  time  it  excites 
interest  in  oral  spelling. 

3.  Prizes.  —  The  danger  of  giving  prizes  in  ordinary 
school-work  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  reward  success  rather 
than  effort ;  that  they  arouse  jealousy,  and  that  they  are 
likely  to  subject  the  teacher  to  the  charge  of  unfairness.  Be- 
sides this,  it  is  difficult  to  give  prizes  on  a  perfectly  fair  basis. 
One  child  receives  help  at  home,  is  unhampered  by  outside 
duties,  has  more  books  and  material  to  work  with,  is  able 
to  attend  school  more  regularly  than  another  whose  efforts 
are,  perhaps,  more    worthy.     Then,  too,    the    contestants 


INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOL-WORK. 


175 


usually  narrow  down  to  a  small  number  of  pupils,  perhaps 
two  or  three,  who  need  the  incentive  least  of  all.  There- 
fore, the  offering  of  the  prize  accomplishes  no  good  end. 
If,  early  in  the  contest,  all  but  a  few  drop  out,  the  other 
pupils  becoming  mere  partisans  of  their  particular  friends, 
evil,  and  not  good,  is  the  inevitable  result. 

I  remember,  when  a  boy,  entering  a  contest  for  a  prize, 
and  I  can  never  dismiss  the  idea  that  my  teacher  treated 
me  unfairly.  I  did  not  win  the  prize !  The  contest  was 
in  spelling,  and  it  lasted  the  whole  term.  The  pupils  stood 
up  in  a  long  line,  each  spelling  orally  in  turn.  The  teacher 
let  a  misspelled  word  pass  without  comment,  and  any 
pupil  who  noticed  the  error  could  take  up  the  word,  spell 
it  correctly,  and  go  above  the  one  who  had  missed  it.  It 
was  the  duty  of  the  pupil  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
class  to  correct  all  misspelled  words  that  had  not  been  cor- 
rected down  the  line,  when  it  came  his  turn.  If  he 
corrected  ten  words  and  failed  to  remember  a  single  one, 
any  one  below  him  might  spell  it  and  displace  him.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  was  a  memory  test  as  well  as  an 
exercise  in  spelling.  At  the  close  of  the  lesson,  the  pupil 
remaining  at  the  head  of  the  class  scored  a  point,  and  took 
his  place  at  the  foot,  to  begin  again  the  next  day  to  work 
his  way  up.  The  contestants  were  soon  reduced  in  number 
to  two  pupils,  of  whom  I  was  one.  None  of  the  others  had 
the  slightest  interest  in  the  contest,  except  as  they  were 
partisans  of  the  two  leaders.  The  suspicion  became  gen- 
eral that  the  teacher  favored  my  opponent.  It  was  noticed 
that  as  soon  as  she  reached  the  head,  the  lesson  was 
discontinued ;  whereas,  so  long  as  I  remained  there,  he 
would  continue  to  pronounce  words  until  the  inevitable 
came,  and  I  was  displaced.      It  is  quite  likely   that    this 


176  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

suspicion  was  unjust,  and  that  the  teacher  meant  to  give 
us  an  equal  chance.  But  excitement  ran  high,  and  tlie 
contest  afforded  an  opportunity  to  form  this  judgment.  It 
worked  evil  to  both  pupils  and  teacher,  whether  justly  or 
unjustly,  and  occasioned  a  loss  of  confidence.  Such  a  con- 
test should  never  be  entered  upon.  It  is  debasing  to 
school  morals ;  it  arouses  animosities,  and  does  not  secure 
better  work  among  the  pupils  as  a  whole. 

If  prizes  are  given  at  all,  they  should  be  for  things 
upon  which  all  can  enter  with  equal  chance,  such  as  deport- 
ment, regularity,  punctuality,  neatness,  etc.  A  teachci 
offered  prizes  to  her  pupils  for  keeping  their  boots  blacked, 
their  hands  and  nails  clean,  and  for  general  neatness  of 
person.  It  had  a  good  effect,  for  all  could  enter  the 
contest. 

In  general,  it  is  better  that  prizes  should  be  offered  by 
outsiders,  and  that  the  judges  also  should  be  persons  not 
connected  with  the  school.  Many  of  the  evils  enumerated 
will  be  avoided  thereby.  This  is  usually  the  plan  pursued 
in  colleges,  where  prizes  in  the  form  of  scholarships,  fellow- 
ships, money,  etc.,  are  given.  The  charge  of  favoritism 
is  thus  eliminated,  and  great  good  to  worthy  students  may 
be  done. 

It  would  be  unwise  to  give  a  sweeping  condemnation  of 
the  idea  of  offering  prizes.  Scholarship  may  be  promoted, 
science  fostered,  invention  stimulated,  and  investigation  in 
new  fields  of  learning  and  enterprise  furthered.  The  Ox- 
ford scholarships  founded  by  the  late  Cecil  Rhodes,  where- 
by students  from  many  lands  will  be  enabled  to  pursue 
advanced  studies  in  the  great  English  university  ;  scholar- 
ships and  fellowships  established  in  all  of  our  colleges  and 
universities ;  prizes  offered  by  individuals  and  by  scientific 


INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOI^WORK. 


^77 


societies  to  promote  research,  —  all  these  must  exert  a 
wonderful  influence  for  good.  The  competitors,  however, 
are  mature  persons.  The  conditions  under  which  these 
prizes  are  offered  are  such  as  to  prevent  their  being  un- 
worthily or  unjustly  bestowed.  Hence,  the  evils  of  the 
ordinary  school  prize  are  guarded  against. 

We  may  say,  then,  in  conclusion,  that  the  prize  is  an 
unworthy  means  of  stimulating  children,  except  where  all 
may  enter  the  contest  with  equal  expectation  of  success. 
The  teacher  cannot  rely  upon  prize-giving  as  a  wholesome 
incentive  for  school-work. 

4.  Marking,  —  Many  teachers  follow  the  practice  of 
marking  each  pupil  when  he  has  completed  a  recitation. 
The  pupil  soon  regards  the  mark  as  the  end  for  which  he 
recites.  It  is  well  known  that  pupils  become  acute  in 
watching  the  motion  of  the  teacher's  pencil  so  that  they 
are  able  to  detect  the  ten,  the  six,  or  the  zero  which  they 
may  get.  The  gravest  evil  of  this  system,  consequentl}', 
is  that  it  incites  the  pupil  to  work  for  the  mark  only. 

There  are  teachers  who  seem  to  rejoice  in  catching  a 
child  in  error,  and  they  put  down  a  zero  with  evident 
satisfaction.  It  does  not  take  children  long  to  discern 
this  spirit.  It  is  as  though  the  purpose  of  the  recitation 
is  to  see  how  many  pupils  can  be  made  to  fail,  rather  than 
to  arouse  their  highest  effort.  I  shall  show  later  (p.  179) 
that  the  purpose  of  the  recitation  centres  around  the  idea 
of  finding  out  what  the  pupils  know  instead  of  what  they 
do  not  know. 

A  system  of  accurate  marking  makes  the  teacher  a  slave 
to  the  mechanical  side  of  his  work,  destroys  direct  interest 
in  the  lesson,  and  stands  between  him  and  his  class  con- 


lyg  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

tinually  in  the  thought  of  both.  Should  it  arouse  the  class 
to  increased  effort,  which  may  be  doubted,  its  baneful  influ- 
ence more  than  counterbalances  the  good  effects  because  of 
the  end  in  view.  Nor  does  the  evil  cease  with  the  lesson. 
The  teacher  unnecessarily  adds  to  his  own  burdens  in  the 
monthly  averages  that  must  be  made  out.  For  a  mechani- 
cal system  of  marking  carries  with  it  the  footing-up  of  rows 
of  figures  and  the  reckoning  of  averages  in  order  to  find  out 
exactly  how  each  pupil  stands  in  each  subject.  It  is  the 
most  profitless  and  tiresome  work  that  a  teacher  can  under- 
take ;  and,  withal,  it  is  thoroughly  useless  if  not  vicious. 
There  is  enough  drudgery  which  cannot  be  escaped  with- 
out the  teacher  taking  upon  himself  any  that  can  be  dis- 
pensed with. 

Purpose  of  tnarking.  —  The  purpose  of  marking  is  merely 
to  assist  the  teacher's  memory  when  he  comes  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  periodical  report  or  of  promotion.  Possi- 
bly the  presence  of  marks  in  the  record-book  may  satisfy 
parents  who  question  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  in  regard 
to  the  report  sent  home.  Where  the  class  is  large,  a  few 
marks  may  be  necessary  to  indicate  the  weakness  of  pupils 
who  are  not  doing  well.  If  the  record-book  shows  many 
entries  against  a  name,  errors  only  being  marked,  it  will 
soon  attract  attention,  and  lead  to  inquiry  as  to  the  cause 
of  bad  work.  Surely  the  purpose  of  marking  is  not  to  keep 
an  accurate  debit  and  credit  account  with  every  pupil.  No 
child  should  be  subjected  to  such  a  system. 

Method  suggested.  —  A  system  of  marking  that  absorbs 
the  chief  attention  of  both  pupils  and  teacher,  that  makes 
the  recording  of  daily  work  an  end  and  not  a  means,  is 
to  be  condemned.  But  marking  can  be  employed  as  an 
incentive  for  school-work  without    inviting   the  evils  de- 


INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOI^WORK.  1 79 

scribed.     Let  me  suggest  a  plan  by  which  it  may  be  so 
employed. 

1.  Mark  only  wisatisfactory  ivork.  —  It  will  be  noticed 
that  I  do  not  say  perfect  work.  No  school-work  is  abso- 
lutely perfect,  and  yet  most  of  it  should  be  satisfactory  ;  if 
not,  either  the  subject-matter  has  been  too  difficult,  or  the 
explanation  of  it  has  been  inadequate.  In  either  case  the 
fault  is  the  teacher's  and  not  the  pupils'.  When  only  un- 
satisfactory work  is  marked,  there  will  be  but  little  mark- 
ing necessary,  hence  the  page  will  remain  comparatively 
clean.  Thus  it  follows  that  the  drudgery  of  making  out 
monthly  reports  will  be  lessened.  Instead  of  long  lines  of 
figures  to  add,  there  are  but  a  few  figures  scattered  over 
the  page,  which  the  teacher  has  entered  to  aid  his  memory 
when  he  comes  to  determine  what  the  average  should  be. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  only  unsatisfactory  work  is 
recorded.  If  the  record  is  expressed  in  letters,  E,  G,  F, 
and  P,  as  already  suggested,  the  purpose  will  be  adequately 
met,  and  sufficient  data  will  be  furnished  for  indicating  each 
pupil's  monthly  or  term  standing.  Marking  only  unsatis- 
factory lessons  greatly  simplifies  the  system,  saves  time, 
keeps  the  matter  of  records  in  the  background,  and  yet 
furnishes  all  needed  information. 

2.  Mark  only  at  the  end  of  the  recitation.  —  When  a 
pupil  is  called  upon  and  fails  to  do  well,  make  a  note  and 
go  on  with  other  pupils.  Let  every  pupil  understand  that 
marks  are  given  only  at  the  close  of  the  recitation,  and 
that  there  is  opportunity  to  redeem  error  so  long  as 
the  recitation  lasts.  If  a  child  succeeds  in  proving  that  he 
has  been  faithful  in  preparation  and  that  he  understands 
the  lesson  as  a  whole,  no  entry  of  a  single  mistake  need 
be  made.     Thus,  the  whole  class  will  be  kept  alert  until 


l8o  A   NEW   SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

the  close  of  the  recitation ;  whereas,  under  a  system  of 
close  marking,  when  a  pupil  gets  a  ten,  he  is  satisfied,  and 
does  not  need  to  exert  himself  any  further,  and  if  he  gets  a 
zero  he  is  likely  to  be  angry  and  refuse  to  try  again.  Each 
pupil  as  soon  as  he  has  recited  might  almost  as  well  be  ex- 
cused from  the  class,  for  the  end  sought,  the  mark,  has 
been  attained. 

But  if  no  record  is  made  until  the  close  of  the  lesson, 
interest  will  be  maintained,  and  undue  attention  to  marks 
will  be  avoided.  As  there  is  so  little  marking,  it  may  in 
some  cases  be  done  while  the  classes  are  changing. 

3.  Do  not  aimoujice  the  mark  given. — It  is  not  the 
business  of  the  children  to  know  what  is  entered  in  the 
teacher's  record.  As  we  have  said,  marks  are  merely  pri- 
vate signs  to  assist  the  teacher's  memory  when  the  monthly 
averages  are  recorded.  Even  if  figures  are  employed, 
these  figures  are  not  to  have  strict  mathematical  signifi- 
cance. The  characters  are  simply  a  guide  to  the  teacher  in 
arriving  at  a  sufficiently  accurate  judgment.  Hence  there 
is  no  reason  for  giving  the  pupil  his  daily  mark,  for  it 
would  have  no  correct  meaning  to  him.  Children  will 
soon  cease  to  ask,  and  will  give  attention  to  the  work  in 
hand,  which  is  the  mastery  of  the  subject  without  reference 
to  any  record  made. 

We  reiterate  that  this  plan  of  marking  will  be  easy,  will 
be  sufficient  for  all  purposes,  will  serve  as  a  means  rather 
than  an  end,  and  will  allow  the  teacher  to  giv^e  his  whole 
thought  to  the  recitation.  The  legitimate  purpose  of  the 
school,  that  of  instructing  the  pupils,  will  thus  be  furthered. 

5.  The  Highest  Incentive.  — The  highest  incentive  for 
endeavor  in  the  school  must  be  found  in  the  lessons  them- 


INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOI^WORK.  i8l 

selves.  When  the  pupils  stud}^  for  the  love  of  learning, 
when  they  seek  the  mastery  over  the  subjects  of  their  course 
because  they  want  to  know  them,  when  they  find  interest 
in  their  school  duties,  then  they  have  reached  the  highest 
incentive  of  school  activity.  Emulation,  class  rank,  prizes, 
marking,  may  be  employed  as  temporary  expedients,  but 
the  teacher  should  have  the  end  in  view  from  the  outset, 
and  should  never  be  satisfied  until  that  end  is  reached.  A 
personal  experience  taught  me  this  important  lesson.  I 
relate  it  in  the  hope  that  the  truth  may  come  home  to  my 
readers  with  added  force. 

It  was  the  last  night  of  a  seven  days'  trip  through  the 
Thuringian  Forest  in  Germany.^  Twenty-five  teachers 
belonging  to  Stoy's  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Jena,  and 
about  fifty  boys  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  con- 
stituted our  party.  The  boys  were  soundly  sleeping  upon 
the  straw  in  the  hotel  ballroom,  and  the  teachers  were 
assembled  for  their  last  conference.  The  week's  experi- 
ences had  been  reviewed,  its  lessons  summarized,  and 
a  tentative  scheme  of  the  uses  to  be  made  of  the  material 
collected.  The  week  had  been  rich  in  historic,  geo- 
graphic, and  scientific  interest.  Scenes  of  some  of  the 
world's  most  mighty  events,  —  the  principal  battle-grounds 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War ;  the  Wartburg,  where  Luther 
translated  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  many  of  the  places  where 
he  had  lived,  taught,  and  preached,  and  where  the 
Reformation  first  took  root  ;  the  spot  where  St.  Boniface 
founded  the  first  monastery  and  introduced  Christianity 
into  Germany ;  Salzungen,  where  Charlemagne  made 
the  natural  salt  springs  of  commercial  value,  —  these  and 

1  For  a  full  account  of  this  trip,  see  my  "  Foundations  of  Education," 
Chapter  XV. 


I  82  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

many  other  historic  places  had  been  visited  during  those 
seven  memorable  days.  The  rivers,  mountains,  villages, 
and  cities  of  this  most  beautiful  section  of  the  Fatherland 
had  been  studied,  thus  obtaining  practical  lessons  in 
geography.  Manufactories  had  been  inspected,  and  many 
important  lessons  concerning  the  economic  conditions  of 
the  boys'  native  land  derived.  Plant  and  animal  life  had 
been  carefully  noted,  the  formation  of  rocks  and  the 
character  of  the  soil  examined,  preparatory  to  most  valu- 
able lessons  in  nature  study  and  science. 

Besides  this,  the  daily  contact  of  teachers  and  pupils 
had  awakened  sympathies  and  strengthened  bonds  des- 
tined to  form  the  groundwork  for  future  moral  and 
spiritual  culture.  This  rich  material  had  been  noted  in 
the  boys'  diaries  under  the  supervision  of  the  teachers, 
to  be  utilized  in  the  school-work  of  the  coming  year. 
The  result  of  this  study  was  to  appear  in  a  final  and 
extended  description  which  each  boy  was  to  make.  It  is 
evident  that  such  a  trip  would  furnish  an  abundance  of 
valuable  and  interesting  material  which  could  scarcely  be 
exhausted  during  the  whole  succeeding  year. 

It  occurred  to  me  that  I  could  encourage  the  boys  in 
this  work  by  offering  a  special  incentive,  a  prize.  Ac- 
cordingly I  proposed  to  give  ten  marks,  to  be  distributed 
in  three  prizes  of  five,  three,  and  two  marks,  to  the  three 
pupils  producing  the  best  descriptions  respectively.  IMy 
offer  was  received  by  the  teachers  with  applause,  but  I 
thought  with  some  reserv'e.  The  following  morning  I 
saw  the  principal,  and  asked  him  to  tell  me  frankly  what 
he  thought  of  my  offer.  His  reply  taught  me  the  lesson 
that  I  am  trying  to  inculcate,  which  may  justify  this 
lengthy   description.      He   disclosed   to   me   politely  the 


INCENTIVES   TO    SCHOOL-WORK.  183 

attitude  towards  my  proposition  that  he  felt  compelled  to 
take.  He  said :  "  We  appreciate  most  fully  your  kindly 
intention,  but  we  cannot  accept  your  offer.  It  would  be 
contrary  to  all  of  our  pedagogical  teachings.  These  boys 
are  all  poor,  and  the  prizes  you  offer  would  be  a  strong 
inducement  to  them,  and  one  which  would  be  constantly 
before  them  throughout  the  year.  An  unwholesome  and 
unnatural  stimulus  would  be  furnished.  I  cannot  consent 
to  it.  My  boys  must  do  the  work  that  we  are  going 
to  ask  of  them,  because  they  love  it  and  are  interested  in 
it,  and  not  because  of  any  outside  incentive.  It  is  our 
duty  as  teachers  to  awaken  in  them  a  love  for  their  school- 
work,  and  if  we  fail  to  do  this  we  are  not  good  teachers. 
No,  my  dear  sir,  we  cannot  accept  your  offer,  nor  can  we 
allow  our  boys  to  know  that  you  have  made  it."  I  never 
forgot  the  lesson.  It  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  educa- 
tional theories  ever  propounded  to  me,  and  it  was  perfectly 
sound. 

The  highest  incentive  must  be  found  in  the  subject- 
matter  itself.  The  teacher,  by  the  method  used,  by  his 
love  for  the  work,  and  his  interest  in  it,  by  zeal  and 
earnestness  and  knowledge,  must  arouse  and  inspire  his 
pupils  also  to  love  it.  There  is  no  subject  in  the  curricu- 
lum with  which  this  is  not  ultimately  possible.  Although 
the  other  incentives,  such  as  prizes,  class  rank,  etc.,  may 
sometunes  be  employed  as  temporary  expedients,  the 
teacher  should  aim  to  bring  his  pupils  to  the  high  plane 
insisted  upon  by  my  German  friend,  namely,  that  of  study 
for  the  love  of  the  subject  studied. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROMOTION. 

Ever  since  La  Salle,  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago, 
originated  the  "  Simultaneous  Method "  of  instruction 
whereby  pupils  of  about  the  same  advancement  are  taught 
together  in  classes  instead  of  individually,  the  problem  of 
promotion  has  agitated  the  educational  world.  Some  have 
even  gone  so  far  as  to  condemn  the  classification  of  pupils 
and  to  advocate  the  return  to  "individualism,"  pure  and 
simple.  Doubtless  the  economy  of  instructing  many  pupils 
at  the  same  time,  and  the  simpHcity  of  a  scheme  which 
allows  a  number  of  children  to  be  placed  together  for  a 
certain  period  and  for  the  same  work,  are  attractive  to 
schoolmen.  The  plan  admits  of  a  whole  class  being  pro- 
moted in  a  body  ;  it  is,  however,  a  plan  that  has  been 
found,  if  too  rigidly  administered,  to  work  injustice  to  some 
of  the  pupils.  Thus  evils  have  grown  up  under  the  sys- 
tem.  The  individual  needs  are  often  lost  sight  of  ;  each 
class  is  expected  to  perform  the  same  work  in  the  same 
time  ;  a  certain  number  of  pages  of  the  text-book  are  speci- 
fied in  the  curriculum  to  be  covered  in  a  given  number  of 
weeks,  regardless  of  the  ability  of  the  class  ;  the  work 
becomes  mechanical  and  automatic  in  its  operation ;  and 
the  efficiency  of  the  teachers  is  estimated  by  their  success 
in  grinding  out  the  required  specifications.  Full-year 
courses  with  a  fixed  amount  of  work,  followed  by  promotion 
at  the  end  of  the  year  only,  make  promotion  a  very  serious 

184 


PROMOTION. 


185 


matter.  And  when  a  pupil  who  falls  but  a  fraction  of  one 
per  cent  below  the  fixed  passing-mark  is  required  again  to 
go  over  the  whole  year's  work,  the  matter  becomes  of 
vital  importance  to  both  pupil  and  parent.  This  system 
has  a  tendency  to  drive  pupils  from  the  school,  because 
they  cannot  bear  the  thought  of  spending  another  year 
upon  subjects  that  they  have  nearly  mastered,  or  in  which 
they  have  failed  through  a  possible  accident  in  an  exam- 
ination. Many  teachers  go  to  this  extreme,  and  pupils  and 
schools  suffer  thereby.  I  have  known  pupils  to  be  sent 
back  for  another  year  because  their  average  was  only  74.9, 
while  the  required  promotion-mark  was  75. 

But  there  has  been  a  decided  reaction  against  these 
rigid  methods  in  recent  years,  and  consequently  the  evils 
mentioned  have  largely  disappeared.  Dr.  Harris,  in  speak- 
ing upon  this  point,  says:  "This  evil  has  been  remedied 
in  nearly  one-half  of  the  cities  by  promoting  pupils  when- 
ever they  have  completed  the  work  of  a  grade.  The  con- 
stant tendency  of  classification  to  become  imperfect  by 
reason  of  difference  in  rates  of  advancement  of  the  several 
pupils,  owing  to  disparity  of  age,  degree  of  maturity,  tem- 
perament, and  health,  makes  frequent  classification  neces- 
sary. This  is  easily  accomplished  by  promoting  the  few 
pupils  who  distance  the  majority  of  their  classmates  into 
the  next  class  above,  separated  as  it  ought  to  be  by  an 
interval  of  less  than  half  a  year.  The  bright  pupils  thus 
promoted  have  to  struggle  to  make  up  the  ground  covered 
in  the  interval  between  the  two  classes ;  but  they  are 
nearly  always  able  to  accomplish  this,  and  generally  will  in 
two  years'  time  need  another  promotion  from  class  to  class. 
The  Procrustean  character  of  the  old  city  systems  has 
been  removed  by  this  device."     The  abandonment  of  the 


I  86  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

examination  as  the  sole  means  of  measuring  the  progress 
of  the  pupil,  and  the  greater  reliance  upon  the  teachers' 
judgment,  have  also  materially  aided  in  bringing  about  this 
reform. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  question  is  as 
yet  by  any  means  settled,  or  that  the  final  word  on  this 
subject  has  been  spoken.  While  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
schools  will  ever  return  to  the  former  method  of  deciding 
upon  promotion,  many  thoughtful  men  believe  that  the 
examination  has  a  place  in  educational  practice,  and  in  a 
complete  scheme  of  instruction.  I  shall  consider  this 
question  in  the  following  chapter. 

Object  of  Promotion.  —  What  is  the  object  of  promo- 
tion ?  It  may  be  remarked  that  promotion  in  itself  does 
not  advance  the  pupil  an  iota  in  knowledge,  though  the 
child  and  the  parent  may  think  that  it  does.  The  sole 
object  of  promotion  is  to  place  the  pupil  where  he  can  do 
the  best  work.  If  he  has  mastered  the  work  in  a  given 
class,  or  has  so  far  mastered  it  as  to  be  able  to  accomplish 
more  in  a  higher  class,  he  should  be  advanced.  He  may 
even  be  promoted  on  trial  as  a  stimulus  to  him,  his  contin- 
uance in  the  higher  class  to  be  dependent  upon  his  dispo- 
sition and  ability  to  maintain  a  good  standing  there. 
Whenever  either  of  these  conditions  exist,  whether  at  the 
end  of  the  term  or  at  any  other  time,  a  trial  should  be 
accorded  the  pupil.  The  point  is  that  he  shall  be  placed 
where  he  can  get  the  most  out  of  his  school  life,  and  no 
rigid  system  should  be  allowed  to  defeat  this  end.  I  con- 
ceive this  to  be  the  purpose  of  promotion. 

If  the  pupil  can  get  the  highest  good  by  remaining  in 
his  present  class,  he  should  be  kept  there,  regardless  of 


PROMOTION.  187 

his  own  entreaties  and  of  outside  pressure.  It  is  even  a 
greater  wrong  to  hurry  the  pupil  over  a  course  more  rap- 
idly than  he  is  able  to  master  it  well  than  to  require  him 
to  go  too  slowly,  for  in  the  former  case  he  gets  only  a 
superficial  view,  while  in  the  latter  he  gains  thoroughness 
and  perfect  mastery.  The  Germans  seem  to  have  this 
thought  in  mind  in  having  only  six  years  of  work  specified 
in  their  course,  although  they  require  eight  years  of  school 
attendance  in  which  to  accomplish  that  work.  Instead  of 
the  child  being  hurried  from  grade  to  grade  as  though  the 
sole  end  of  school-work  were  promotion,  he  rarely  com- 
pletes the  six  grades  in  six  years,  but  drops  back  at  least 
twice,  so  that  it  takes  him  eight  years  to  complete  the 
course.  Now,  I  do  not  advocate  the  adoption  of  this  plan 
in  American  schools.  It  has  very  serious  defects  which 
the  Germans  themselves  recognize ;  but  it  certainly  tends 
to  wonderful  thoroughness  in  all  school-work.  It  would 
seem  that  holding  the  pupils  back  would  be  discouraging 
to  them,  and  that  there  would  be  little  incentive  to  earnest 
appHcation.  I  have  the  testimony  of  adult  Germans  that 
the  plan  works  well,  that  the  repetition  of  a  year's  work, 
especially  the  last,  adds  to  the  clearness  of  the  subjects, 
and  fixes  much  that  had  not  been  well  understood.  The 
last  year,  instead  of  being  irksome,  is  described  as  being 
full  of  interest. 

The  child  should  be  promoted,  then,  or  held  back,  as 
the  case  may  be,  according  to  his  personal  needs.  The 
mere  act  of  promotion  has  no  educational  value  whatever. 
There  are  schools  where  the  subject  of  promotion  is  upper- 
most in  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  where  teachers  labor  for 
that  end,  where  parents  are  on  the  alert  with  reference  to 
it,  and  where  the  whole  school   sentiment  of  a  community 


I  88  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

centres  around  this  idea.  Pupils  are  mo\'ed  forward  rapidly, 
but  at  the  expense  of  sound  educational  progress,  as  their 
career  in  higher  institutions  amply  proves.  Such  an  ideal 
of  school-work  and  such  an  atmosphere  cannot  fail  ulti- 
mately to  work  harm. 

The  proper  ideal  in  a  school  community,  as  to  promotion, 
is  reached  when  the  aim  is  thoroughness  in  the  mastery 
of  all  school-work,  when  pupils  and  parents  have  absolute 
confidence  in  the  teacher's  ability,  judgment,  and  disposi- 
tion to  place  the  child  where  he  can  get  the  most  good 
and  do  the  best  work.  When  this  is  being  done  for  the 
child,  it  makes  but  little  difference  what  the  grade  in  which 
he  is  placed  is  called  ;  the  school  is  doing  its  best  for  him. 

Frequency  of  Promotion.  —  For  many  reasons  there 
should  be  stated  times  for  promotion.  A  goal  is  set  towards 
which  both  pupils  and  teacher  may  aim.  While  the  act 
of  promotion,  as  we  have  seen,  does  not  advance  the  child 
in  knowledge,  it  indicates  an  end  reached,  and  evidences 
progress  by  means  of  standards  that  are  understood. 
Thus,  when  we  say  that  the  pupil  is  in  the  sixth  grade, 
every  one  understands  that  preceding  grades  have  been 
passed,  and  that  certain  work,  the  scope  of  which  is 
marked  out,  is  being  done.  Each  promotion  marks  an 
event  in  the  child's  life,  perhaps  changes  him  to  a  higher 
room  and  another  teacher.  It  stimulates  him  to  renewed 
endeavor  in  his  new  environment.  Children  love  change ; 
and  while  this  may  be  so  frequent  as  to  cause  unrest  and 
instability,  —  perhaps  nervousness,  —  change  in  their  occu- 
pation and  environment  is  essential. 

I  have  said  that  -promotion  should  be  made  at  stated 
times,  at  least  so  far  as  the  class  as  a  whole  is  concerned. 


PROMOTION.  189 

Otherwise  the  work  of  the  school  is  broken  up,  the  classes 
are  disintegrated,  steady,  systematic  progress  is  inter- 
fered with,  superficiality  is  encouraged,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  undue  prominence  is  given  to  the  mere  act  of  pro- 
motion. Individual  pupils  will  be  moved  forward  or 
backward  whenever  it  is  found  that  the  peculiarities  of 
their  case  demand  such  action.  But  the  class  as  a  whole 
should  continue  its  work  until  the  end  of  a  stated  period, 
which,  however,  must  not  be  too  long.  If  some  'pupils 
show  superior  ability  in  given  subjects,  and  yet  not  enough 
to  warrant  advancement  before  the  regular  time,  no  great 
harm  will  be  done  if  they  are  held  back  for  a  short  inter- 
val. Although  they  may  perform  their  tasks  better  than 
others,  the  watchful  teacher  will  have  no  difficulty  in  keep- 
ing them  profitably  employed.  There  is  an  abundance  of 
correlated  material  suitable  for  every  grade  that  may  be 
offered  to  keep  them  busy  and  furnish  a  broader  view  of 
the  work  than  may  be  required  of  the  whole  class.  This 
will  prove  no  loss  to  them,  but  rather  a  decided  gain.  In 
the  best  sense,  the  child  is  being  educated,  and  his  educa- 
tion is  the  purpose  of  the  school ;  and  if  this  aim  is  secured, 
it  makes  but  little  difference  what  grade  he  is  in.  I  am 
not  arguing  against  promotion,  but  against  making  it  the 
chief  end  of  school-work.  Let  it  be  an  event  that  comes 
at  stated  periods,  which  gives  evidence  to  parents  and  to  the 
world  that  the  child  has  successfully  mastered  certain  work, 
that  he  is  prepared  to  enter  upon  another  grade.  Let  the 
child  find  joy  in  the  recognition  of  success  to  which  pro- 
motion is  a  testimonial,  but  let  him  find  more  joy  in  the 
knowledge  he  has  obtained,  and  in  the  consciousness  of 
complete  mastery  of  his  tasks. 

A  bright  boy  of   about   twelve  years  of  age  wished  to 


I^O  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

enter  my  school.  In  examining  him  I  asked,  "  WTiat  do 
you  know,  my  lad  .'' "  "Well,  sir,"  he  replied,  "I  don't 
know  much  of  anything."  "  Where  have  you  been  at 
school.'*"  I  next  inquired.  "I  have  been  in  a  number  of 
schools,  but  in  none  very  long,"  was  his  answer.  "  What 
grade  do  you  expect  to  enter  ? "  I  pursued.  "  You  will 
have  to  put  me  in  a  very  low  grade,"  said  he.  After 
questioning  him  concerning  various  subjects,  I  found  that  he 
really  had  been  very  poorly  taught,  and  therefore  I  placed 
him  in  a  grade  two  or  three  years  below  that  of  his  age,  and 
he  was  perfectly  satisfied.  I  kept  my  eye  upon  him,  how- 
ever, and,  at  the  suggestion  of  his  teacher,  moved  hirn  up  a 
grade  after  a  few  days.  I  promoted  him  again  in  a  short 
time,  and  finally  found  where  he  could  do  the  best  work. 
Now,  neither  the  boy  nor  the  classes  suffered  by  this 
proceeding.  Any  watchful  teacher  wdll  soon  discover  if  a 
pupil  is  out  of  place  in  a  given  class,  and  will  promptly  take 
steps  to  put  him  where  he  belongs. 

There  should  be  two  stated  promotions  each  year,  and 
these  will  be  sufficient  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  class. 
This  plan  may  be  modified,  especially  in  large  schools 
where  there  are  two  or  more  parallel  classes  in  each  grade, 
by  having  one  division  called  A,  and  another  B,  and  so  on, 
the  work  in  the  higher  divisions  being  more  advanced 
respectively.  It  can  also  be  applied  in  small  schools  by 
forming  different  divisions  in  the  same  class,  which  could 
be  plus  (4-)  and  minus  ( — ).  Thus,  bright  pupils  would 
not  be  obliged  to  wait  even  till  the  semi-annual  promotion 
of  the  whole  class  before  being  advanced  to  higher  work. 

In  no  case  should  the  bright  and  the  dull  pupils  be 
segregated.  Bright  pupils  need  not  be  retarded  in  their 
progress  by  association  with  those  who  must  proceed  more 


PROMOTION. 


191 


slowly.  They  learn  to  be  more  thorough,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  their  quickness  of  perception  stimulates  the 
slow  pupil  to  greater  intellectual  activity.  It  is  not  sacri- 
ficing one  for  the  other,  for  there  is  mutual  benefit  to 
both  the  bright  and  the  dull  child  by  association.  Be- 
sides, as  has  been  shown  elsewhere,  there  is  an  abundance 
of  extra  material  available  to  those  who  are  capable  of 
doing  more  than  the  regular  tasks. 

With  semi-annual  promotions,  with  elasticity  in  grading, 
with  the  use  of  subdivisions  indicated  by  plus  and  minus, 
and  with  the  advancement  of  special  cases  that  stand  out 
prominently,  whenever  the  teacher  is  satisfied  that  it  is 
best,  the  advantages  and  the  economy  of  a  grading  system 
can  be  secured  without  loss  to  individual  pupils.  Class 
interest  and  class  spirit  will  be  awakened  and  maintained, 
and  steady,  wholesome,  and  sure  progress  will  be  assured. 

Importance  of  the  Teacher's  Judgment.  —  The  grade 
teacher,  who  daily  instructs  the  class,  who  knows  the  per- 
sonal characteristics  of  each  pupil  better  than  the  pupil 
himself  or  his  parents  know  them,  who  is  an  educational 
expert,  who  is  sincere  and  devoted,  who  is  studying  the 
welfare  of  his  pupils,  —  such  a  teacher  is  the  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  deciding  the  question  of  promotion,  and 
he  will  not  base  his  final  judgment  upon  an  examination,  a 
test,  a  review,  or  the  daily  record,  —  any  one  of  these 
alone,  —  but  possibly  upon  several  or  all  of  these  elements. 
He  will  also  consider  the  physical  condition  of  the  child, 
weigh  well  the  probabilities  of  success  in  a  higher  grade, 
and  then  determine  whether  or  not  he  should  promote. 
The  sole  question  is.  Where  can  the  pupil  get  the  most 
good?     When  that  is  decided,  that  is  the  grade  into  which 


192 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


the  child  must  be  put.  The  teacher's  judgment  and  knowl- 
edge of  all  of  the  conditions  and  of  the  child's  capabilities 
are  the  most  important  factors  in  reaching  this  decision. 

In  doubtful  cases,  the  advice  of  the  principal,  of  the 
teacher  of  the  next  higher  class,  and  perhaps  of  the  whole 
faculty,  may  be  summoned.  Consultation  between  the 
teachers  most  directly  interested,  affords  an  opportunity  to 
call  attention  to  any  peculiarities  that  the  child  may  pos- 
sess, and  it  enables  several  teachers  to  act  in  concert  for 
the  welfare  of  the  pupil.  By  such  a  plan  the  dangers  of 
rigid  classification  will  be  avoided,  and  each  individual  child 
will  be  fully  cared  for.  At  the  same  time  the  advantages 
of  a  definite  system  and  the  inspiration  of  class  example 
and  spirit  will  be  retained. 

Means  of  Determining  the  Fitness  of  a  Pupil  to  be 
Promoted.  —  How  shall  the  teacher  satisfy  hiinself  that 
the  child's  mastery  of  the  subject  is  sufficient  to  warrant 
his  advancement  to  a  higher  class  ?  Various  means  have 
been  used  in  the  past,  the  most  common  one  being  the 
examination.  At  the  end  of  the  term  or  year  the  pupil 
was  examined,  and  if  he  reached  the  required  percentage 
he  moved  forward  ;  if  not,  he  remained  in  the  same  class 
until  the  end  of  another  like  period,  when  he  tried  again. 
There  are  several  weaknesses  in  this  plan,  as  follows  : 
(i)  It  does  not  always  discover  the  truth  as  to  the  child's 
knowledge  of  the  subject  —  he  may  be  ner\'ous  or  ill,  and 
not  do  himself  justice ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  be 
fortunate  in  having  "crammed  "  upon  the  very  questions 
asked  without  possessing  any  adequate  acquaintance  with 
the  subject.  (2)  When  the  pupil  has  failed  to  pass,  he  is 
sent  back  for  too  long  a  period,  thereby  discouraging  him. 


PROMOTION. 


193 


and  perhaps  causing  his  withdrawal  from  school.  Or,  if  he 
remains  to  go  over  the  entire  term's  work,  he  does  not  find 
sufficient  profitable  employment.  It  fails  to  meet  the 
requirement  that  the  school  must  place  the  child  where  he 
can  secure  the  greatest  benefit.  (3)  It  puts  the  respon- 
sibility of  deciding  as  to  the  thoroughness  of  a  whole 
term's  work  upon  perhaps  a  single  hour's  trial.  Under 
the  stress  and  anxiety  of  this  responsibility  the  child  often 
fails  to  do  himself  justice.  This  objection  may  fall  to  the 
ground  with  adult  persons  who  have  learned  self-command, 
who  possess  the  maturity  and  strength  to  weigh  the  ques- 
tions and  collect  their  knowledge,  and  who  have  judgment 
and  experience  in  such  matters.  But  it  is  a  valid  objection 
with  young  children.  (4)  It  is  very  difficult  to  formulate 
questions  that  will  be  simple  and  comprehensible  to  chil- 
dren, and  yet  exhaustive  enough  to  furnish  proof  that  the 
subject  has  been  mastered.  (5)  When  the  examination  is 
the  sole  means  of  determining  fitness  for  promotion,  the 
teacher  is  tempted  to  encourage  cramming  by  drilling 
upon  old  examination  papers,  by  anticipating  probable 
questions,  and  otherwise  definitely  preparing  his  pupils  for 
examinations.  The  leading  motive  of  both  teacher  and 
pupils  becomes,  not  the  study  of  the  subject  for  the  sake 
of  knowledge  and  power,  but  the  mere  "  passing  "  the  ex- 
amination. Pernicious  indeed  does  such  a  system  become 
when  the  board  of  education  and  the  community  estimate 
the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  school  by  the  pro- 
portion of  pupils  who  succeed  in  successfully  undergoing 
the  examinations  under  such  circumstances.  Add  to  this 
the  practice  of  advancing  the  teachers  themselves  upon  the 
basis  of  their  success  in  getting  pupils  through  examina- 
tions, and  the  worst  evils  of  such  a  system  will  be  realized. 


194 


A   NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 


The  other  means  by  which  the  question  of  fitness  is 
decided  are  tests,  marking  of  daily  recitations  and  aver- 
aging the  records,  or  by  a  combination  of  these.  In  the 
following  chapter  I  shall  consider  these  means  separately, 
and  endeavor  to  point  out  the  use  of  each  in  aiding  the 
teacher  to  decide  whether  the  pupil  is  ready  for  promotion. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

EXAMINATIONS,  TESTS,  AND    REVIEWS. 

I  HAVE  thus  far  treated  examinations  as  a  means  of  dis- 
covering the  fitness  of  the  child  for  advancement,  and  have 
shown  how  inadequate  they  are  for  this  purpose.  I  shall 
now  discuss  the  subject  of  examinations  itself.  In  order 
that  there  may  be  a  clear  understanding  of  terms,  it  may 
be  stated  that  by  an  examination  is  meant  an  investigation 
or  test,  given  by  a  proper  authority,  for  the  purpose  of 
proving  the  knowledge  or  capacity  of  the  persons  examined 
in  order  to  determine  their  fitness  for  something  sought  by 
them,  as  a  degree,  promotion,  a  testimonial  of  qualification, 
etc.  An  examination  may  be  oral  or  written,  public  or 
private,  comprehensive  or  narrow.  Public  oral  examina- 
tions are  apt  to  assume  the  nature  of  exhibitions,  and 
should  therefore  be  discouraged  with  children,  who  on  such 
occasions  are  under  unnatural  excitement,  and  are  there- 
fore not  likely  to  do  themselves  justice,  while  the  disposition 
to  "show  off  "  is  not  to  be  encouraged. 

There  are  three  things  that  distinguish  an  examination  : 
I.  It  comes  at  a  set  time,  as  once  a  month,  at  the  end  of 
a  term,  before  admission  to  an  institution,  or  preliminary 
to  an  appointment  in  the  civil  service,  etc.  Because  its 
date  is  fixed,  opportunity  is  afforded  to  make  special  prepara- 
tion for  it.  Here  arises  the  danger  of  deferring  preparation 
until  the  last  moment,  and  then  cramming  for  the  definite 
purpose  of  passing.     A  distinction  is  to  be  made  between 

195 


1^6  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

cramming,  and  special  preparation  under  urgent  stress.  All 
hard  work  by  the  student,  even  though  finished  at  the  last 
moment,  is  not  cramming.  It  is  a  splendid  thing  to  possess 
the  power  of  gathering  one's  self  together  for  a  supreme 
effort  to  do  an  unusual  amount  of  work.  Such  exigencies 
occur  all  through  life  — in  the  bank  or  the  mercantile  house 
at  the  close  of  the  month,  at  railroad  stations  during  certain 
hours  of  the  day,  in  almost  every  walk  of  life.  Every  man 
must  be  trained  to  fulfil  his  usual  duties  well,  but  also  on 
occasion  to  do  unusual  work,  to  "  spurt"  as  it  were.  One 
must  be  able  to  summon  all  his  powers  and  employ  them 
for  a  brief  period  under  high  pressure.  So  there  is  no 
objection  to  calling  upon  pupils  to  perform  unusual  tasks 
occasionally.  But  the  bank  clerk,  the  railroad  agent,  the 
train  despatcher,  does  not  fail  to  make  all  possible  previous 
preparation.  He  does  not  waste  his  time  till  the  last 
moment,  and  then  attempt  to  make  up  for  his  negligence 
by  herculean  efforts.  He  performs  all  his  routine  duties 
at  their  proper  time,  and  gets  ready  for  the  period  of 
special  exertion.  The  student  who  faithfully  does  the  work 
of  each  day  as  it  comes  along,  mastering  each  lesson  and 
each  subject  as  best  he  can,  may  indeed  review  that  work 
before  the  final  trial,  and  such  review  cannot  be  denomi- 
nated cramming.  He  is  simply  summarizing,  classifying, 
fixing  the  material  which  he  already  possesses  in  order  to 
be  able  to  bring  it  forward  when  called  upon  to  do  so. 
Under  the  time  limitations  of  an  examination,  he  is  perfectly 
justified  in  maldng  due  preparation  for  the  emergency. 

But  the  student,  on  the  other  hand,  who  loafs,  cuts  his  reci- 
tations, fails  to  perform  his  tasks  day  by  day,  begins  to  burn 
midnight  oil  and  put  forth  extraordinary'  effort  only  a  tew 
days  before  the  examination  comes,  in  order  to  get  enough 


EXAMINATIONS,  TESTS,  AND    REVIEWS.  I^y 

of  the  term's  work  to  pass  muster  with  the  professor  — 
such  a  student  engages  in  cramming.  The  first-named 
student  may  even  study  hard  at  the  last,  but  his  purpose  is 
not  only  to  secure  a  high  mark,  but  also  to  fix  his  knowl- 
edge. He  then  presents  himself  at  the  examination, 
conscious  of  strength,  and  not  dependent  upon  "luck,"  or 
familiarity  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  examiner  to  carry 
him  through.  If  he  fail,  it  will  be  because  the  questions 
have  not  been  fair,  or  because  he  has  not  yet  fully  pre- 
pared himself  in  the  subject,  and  not  because  he  has 
failed  to  be  honest  with  himself  or  remiss  in  the  perform- 
ance of  his  duties. 

The  second  student  works  with  but  one  end  in  view, 
namely,  to  pass ;  and  he  cares  but  httle  if  the  material 
escapes  him  after  it  has  served  its  end.  His  purpose  is  to 
answer  successfully  the  required  seventy  or  seventy-five 
per  cent  of  the  questions  which  he  may  have  succeeded  in 
anticipating.  The  former,  by  doing  his  best  all  of  the 
time,  has  acted  upon  a  principle  that  is  essential  to  success 
in  life  ;  while  the  latter  has  pursued  a  careless  and  shiftless 
course,  which  forebodes  ruin  to  character  and  failure  in 
business.  The  one  student  does  honest,  hard  work 
throughout  the  year,  and  perhaps  exerts  himself  even  more 
than  usual  as  the  examination  approaches ;  the  other  stu- 
dent idles  away  his  time  during  the  regular  work,  and 
crams  for  the  final  test. 

I  have  said  that  a  characteristic  of  the  examination  is 
that  it  comes  at  a  set  time.  Sometimes  it  is  conducted 
once  a  year ;  again,  and  more  commonly,  at  the  end  of  the 
term  ;  and,  in  some  schools,  it  occurs  once  a  month.  The 
practice  of  monthly  examinations  is  to  be  strongly  con- 
demned.    It  keeps  the  school  keyed  up  to  a  high  pitch  of 


198  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

nervous  tension ;  it  makes  all  school-work  centre  around 
this  one  idea ;  it  occasions  a  vast  amount  of  unnecessary 
and  unprofitable  labor  for  the  teacher  in  reading  an  end- 
less number  of  examination  papers,  in  keeping  records,  and 
in  making  out  reports  ;  it  is  unnatural  and  unwholesome  to 
school  interests,  and  provocative  of  bitterness  and  unseemly 
strife;  it  puts  a  premium  upon  false  methods,  and  lays 
stress  upon  what  should  be  a  mere  incident  in  a  scheme 
of  education  ;  it  is  quite  unnecessary  as  a  means  of  measur- 
ing progress  or  of  determining  the  efficiency  of  \vork.  If 
examinations  are  to  be  held,  two  or  three  a  year  are  quite 
enough  to  satisfy  all  requirements.  I  shall  endeavor  to 
show  in  later  discussions  that  the  ends  served  by  these 
even  can  be  met  by  other  means  in  the  ordinary,  common 
school  work.  Examinations  will  doubtless  always  be  em- 
ployed in  many  cases  where  adults  are  involved,  where 
much  depends  upon  the  fitness  of  the  candidate,  and  where 
the  examiner  has  not  been  his  teacher. 

2.  An  examinatio7i  should  cover  the  zvhole  field  in  ques- 
tion. It  should  be  broad  and  comprehensive.  If  a  subject 
has  been  completed,  an  examination  should  include  the 
whole  ground  covered,  provided  it  is  the  means  employed 
to  determine  the  proficiency  of  the  student.  If  an  institu- 
tion admits  students,  advances  them  from  class  to  class,  or 
determines  fitness  for  degrees  by  means  of  examinations, 
such  examinations  must  be  comprehensive  and  thorough,  — 
otherwise  the  good  name  of  the  institution  will  suffer.  The 
honor  sought  will  be  considered  worthy  of  attainment  just 
in  proportion  to  the  genuineness  of  the  examination  through 
which  it  is  secured. 

To  cover  the  ground  in  the  best  manner,  topical  treat- 
ment, where  possible,  affords  the  most  satisfactory  means. 


EXAMINATIONS,  TESTS,  AND    REVIEWS.  199 

It  furnishes  opportunity  to  exercise  judgment,  to  show 
breadth  of  thought  and  completeness  of  knowledge,  as  well 
as  to  indicate  mastery  of  details  and  acquaintance  with  facts. 
If  set  questions  instead  of  topics  are  given,  as  may  be 
necessary  with  young  children,  these  questions  should  be 
simple,  clear,  and  comprehensible,  but  not  suggestive  so  as 
to  hint  at  answers  or  to  admit  of  guesses.  The  answers 
should  be  in  full  statements. 

3.  A  third  feature  of  the  examination  is  that  miich  de- 
pends upon  it.  It  marks  the  successful  completion  of  a 
subject ;  and  if  the  examination  is  passed,  it  stamps  ihe  can- 
didate as  ready  to  enter  upon  a  new  phase  of  work,  to 
be  promoted,  to  be  admitted  to  a  higher  institution,  to 
receive  a  degree,  etc.  Herein  lies  the  chief  objection 
to  the  examination  as  a  deciding  element,  especially  with 
young  children.  The  anxiety  under  which  the  child  labors 
and  the  unnatural  excitement  prevent  him  from  doing  him- 
self justice,  as  has  been  shown  elsewhere.  It  remains  to 
be  seen  whether  a  safer,  more  accurate,  and  more  natural 
means  of  determining  the  child's  preparation  for  advance- 
ment may  not  be  devised.  That  the  evils  enumerated 
above  have  actually  appeared  in  many  schools,  sometimes 
j^  in  a  most  aggravated  form,  admits  of  abundant  proof,  and 
^  sometimes  their  presence  has  been  attended  with  saddest 
results. 

Educational  Value  of  Examinations The  examination 

as  an  educational  means  occupies  a  place  for  which  it  is 
difficult  to  find  a  complete  substitute.  Let  us  look  at  some 
of  the  advantages  of  the  examination. 

I.  It  tests  the  ability  to  summon  all  of  one's  pov/ers 
upon  occasion  for  extraordinary  exertion,  and  to  exhibit 


200  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  knowledge  and  power  possessed  upon  a  given  theme, 
as  we  have  already  shown. 

2.  It  trains  the  student  in  the  use  of  good  language, 
concisely  put,  under  limitations  of  time. 

3.  It  requires  the  exercise  of  judgment  as  to  essentials 
and  non-essentials. 

4.  It  solidifies  and  clarifies  the  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject in  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 

5.  It  shows  both  pupil  and  teacher  wherein  the  prepara. 
tion  has  been  weak,  or  where  it  has  proved  satisfactor)'. 

There  is  certainly  great  educational  value  in  each  of  the 
foregoing  propositions  ;  and  if  no  substitute  for  the  exami- 
nation can  be  devised  that  will  furnish  the  same  advan- 
tages, it  must  be  retained. 

Character  of  the  Examination.  —  It  should  be  a  fair  test 
of  work  that  has  been  covered,  should  be  free  from  enig- 
mas, and  the  language  employed  should  be  so  clear  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  question. 
Puzzling  questions  and  "hard  nuts  to  crack"  may  some- 
times be  offered  during  recitation  in  order  to  arouse  men- 
tal energy,,  but  not  in  the  examination,  where  the  entire 
strength  of  the  candidate  is  to  be  devoted  to  proving  the 
thoroughness  of  his  understanding  of  the  subject.  The 
large  proportion  of  a  class  that  has  been  taught  by  the 
examiner  himself  should  pass,  else  the  questions  have  been 
too  difficult  or  the  teaching  has  been  bad.  A  certain  col- 
lege professor  made  his  examinations  so  difficult  that  nine- 
tenths  of  the  students  were  bound  to  fail.  A  large  part 
of  his  classes  would  leave  the  room  upon  seeing  the  ques- 
tions, without  attempting  to  answer  them.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the    most  of   the  members    of   his    classes   were 


EXAMINATIONS,  TESTS,  AND    REVIEWS.  20I 

conditioned,  and  therefore  compelled  to  take  a  second 
examination.  This,  howev^er,  was  always  made  so  easy 
that  no  one  need  fail,  and  thus  the  class  would  ultimately 
be  advanced.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  students  soon 
learned  the  professor's  peculiarities,  and  generally  waited 
for  the  second  examination. 

The  examination  should  not  be  a  mere  test  of  memory, 
or  a  question  of  fact.  Although  it  must  include  both  of 
these,  it  is  of  far  greater  importance  that  it  shall  deter- 
mine the  accuracy,  thoroughness,  and  power  attained  by 
the  pupil.  Of  course,  the  degree  of  judgment  to  be  ex- 
pected depends  upon  the  maturity  of  those  examined. 

Tests.  —  Many  schools  hav^e  recently  adopted  a  system 
of  tests  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  teacher  in  deciding 
the  question  of  promotion.  Unlike  the  examination,  the 
test  occurs  at  the  regular  time  of  the  recitation,  covers  a 
limited  amount  of  work,  is  unannounced,  and  is  not  of  vital 
importance.  It  is  given  without  disturbance  of  the  accus- 
tomed routine  of  the  school,  and  without  loss  of  time,  while 
the  examination  requires  several  days,  during  which  the 
regular  exercises  are  abandoned  and  the  school  thrown  into 
confusion.  In  set  examinations  the  whole  machinery  of  the 
school  is  disorganized,  an  unnatural  and  disquieting  spirit 
pervades  the  pupils,  the  nervous  tension  is  very  great,  and 
the  best  results  of  school-work  cannot  be  secured.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  test,  occurring  as  it  does  at  the  regular 
recitation  period,  not  only  avoids  these  evils,  but  it  also  calls 
forth  the  best  effort  of  the  pupils,  because  the  environment 
is  not  unusual,  being  the  same  as  that  of  every  other  day. 

As  the  test  covers  only  a  limited  amount  of  work,  and 
as  it  may  take  the  place  of  a  regular  recitation,  it  may 


a02  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

occur  whenever  a  phase  of  a  subject  is  completed.  It  may 
be  as  frequent  as  the  teacher  deems  necessary  without  any 
baneful  effects,  because  it  is  given  without  previous  notice 
and  because  little  stress  is  laid  upon  it.  No  nervousness 
or  unnatural  excitement  will  attend  a  test  given  under  the 
foregoing  conditions.  The  moment,  however,  that  it  is 
announced,  it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  examination, 
and  the  calling  of  it  by  another  name  will  not  change  its 
nature.  Pupils  wdll  begin  to  cram  for  it  and  get  anxious 
over  it.  It  will  be  difficult  to  convince  them  that  the 
teacher  does  not  attach  great  importance  to  the  test. 

Care  should  be  taken  by  the  teacher  to  make  clear  to 
the  pupils  that  the  question  of  advancement  or  promotion 
does  not  depend  upon  the  test  alone.  It  is  only  one  of 
several  means  employed  to  determine  that  question.  Its 
main  purpose  is  to  enable  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  them- 
selves to  perceive  how  thoroughly  the  work  has  been  ac- 
complished, in  order  that  weaknesses  and  errors  may  be 
corrected  later.  W'hile  the  pupils  will  understand  that  more 
depends  upon  a  test  than  upon  the  ordinary  recitation,  and 
therefore  will  exert  themselves  to  do  their  best,  yet  the  con- 
ditions are  so  normal  that,  as  we  have  said,  they  will  not 
be  seriously  disturbed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  examination. 

The  genuine  test  shows  what  the  pupils  really  know  — 
proves  it  to  them  as  w^ell  as  to  the  teacher.  Weaknesses  dis- 
covered can  be  corrected  by  later  reviews.  This  is  an  impor- 
tant advantage  of  the  test.  It  also  secures  the  educational 
advantages  to  be  attained  by  the  examination,  namely,  the 
ability  to  exert  unusual  power  upon  occasion,  to  put  readily 
into  good  language  knowledge  possessed,  to  select  the  es- 
sential and  reject  the  non-essential,  to  clarify  in  his  own 
mind  the  materials  at  command,  and  to  show  where  weak- 


EXAMINATIONS,  TESTS,  AND    REVIEWS.  203 

nesses  exist.  The  test,  therefore,  may  be  employed  to 
secure  the  ends  sought  in  the  examination,  and  it  will 
sufficiently  guide  the  teacher  in  determining  the  progress 
of  his  pupils.  It  will  wholly  suffice  in  grades  below  the 
high  school,  and  possibly  in  the  high  school  also.  If  the 
examination  is  still  found  necessary  in  a  part  of  the  high- 
school  work,  in  college,  in  discovering  fitness  for  degrees, 
teachers'  licenses,  or  the  civil  service,  the  danger  will  be 
minimized  because  it  involves  persons  of  maturity,  who  are 
capable  of  exercising  judgment,  and  who  are  not  easily  dis- 
composed. Even  with  adult  students,  the  test  will  often 
fully  satisfy  all  the  demands  and  fulfil  the  requirements 
which  the  examination  is  expected  to  meet.  In  the  ele- 
mentary grades,  at  any  rate,  the  test  may  well  be  employed 
as  a  substitute  for  the  examination. 

Reviews.  — The  review  also  has  its  place  as  a  determin- 
ing factor  in  promotion,  and  likewise  as  a  constant  edu- 
cative influence.  Reviews  should  occur  daily,  and  be 
systematic  and  persistent  in  character.  Each  recitation 
should  begin  with  a  re\iew  of  previous  work  in  order  to 
connect  the  known  with  the  unknown,  to  call  up  what  is 
already  possessed  by  the  pupil  as  an  introduction  to  the 
new  material  that  is  to  be  presented.  It  also  deepens  the 
impression  of  the  old,  classifies  much  that  was  not  fully 
understood,  and  fixes  the  past  lessons,  while  it  prepares 
the  class  for  the  reception  of  the  new  lesson.  "  Repeti- 
tion, repetition,  repetition,  should  be  the  eternal  watch- 
word," said  the  late  Karl  Volkmar  Stoy.  The  questions 
are  put  differently  in  the  review,  the  subject  is  presented 
in  a  new  light  from  that  of  the  ordinary  recitation,  and 
therefore  the  pupils  obtain  a  firmer  hold  upon  the  lesson. 


204  ^   ^^^^    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

But  besides  the  daily  review  in  connection  with  each 
recitation,  there  must  also  be  the  more  extended  and 
formal  review  which  reaches  back  over  the  work  of  days 
and  weeks.  Children  forget  what  they  have  been  over,  and 
their  knowledge  will  be  revived  and  fixed  by  the  review. 
Teachers  have  often  been  mortified  to  find  that  their  pupils 
have  failed  in  subjects  that  were  believed  to  have  been  well 
taught,  and  in  which  the  children  were  thought  to  be  pro- 
ficient. Doubtless  the  failure  was  occasioned  by  insuf- 
ficient reviewing  of  the  work,  whereas  a  proper  method 
would  have  brought  all  of  the  units  acquired  day  by  day 
into  one  consistent  whole.  The  review  should  aim  to  look 
over  the  entire  field  and  bring  all  of  the  parts  into  a  single 
relation,  comprising  a  symmetrical  structure  of  the  knowl- 
edge imparted. 

Hence  while  frequent  reviews  may  be  taken  to  keep  the 
interest  alive,  and  to  keep  the  whole  work  before  the  class, 
a  general  and  exhaustive  review  should  be  had  when  a 
subject  or  some  phase  of  it  is  completed,  rather  than  peri- 
odically. Weekly  or  monthly  reviews  do  not  meet  this 
condition.  Stated  reviews,  whether  or  not  the  class  is 
ready  for  them,  become  stereotyped  and  formal.  If  held 
upon  fixed  days,  as  Friday  afternoons,  many  children  come 
to  look  upon  them  as  a  bore,  a  needless  and  valueless  exer- 
cise, from  which  they  escape  by  remaining  out  of  school. 
Parents,  too,  are  more  ready  to  listen  to  their  children's 
plea  for  a  half-holiday  on  the  ground  that  "  there  is  nothing 
but  a  review."  Thus,  instead  of  attaining  the  educational 
end  sought,  the  periodical  review  becomes  a  fertile  means 
for  defeating  that  end.  If,  however,  the  formal  review 
occurs  whenever  a  subject  is  completed,  the  regular  work 
of  the  school  is  not  disturbed.     The  exercise  fits  in  where 


EXAMINATIONS,  TESTS,  AND    REVIEWS.  205 

it  belongs  as  a  part  of  the  educational  plan  in  completely 
rounding  out  the  treatment  of  the  subject. 

It  may  be  urged  that  the  stated  review  affords  an  oppor- 
tunity for  parents  to  visit  the  school  and  witness  the  work 
which  their  children  are  doing.  This  makes  the  school 
exercises  a  mere  show,  which  is  most  pernicious  in  its 
effect  upon  the  character  of  the  children.  It  does  not 
exhibit  the  true  work  of  the  school,  and  therefore  it  is 
unnatural  and  misleading.  This  practice  is  carried  to  an 
extreme  in  German  schools  in  what  is  known  as  the  annual 
"Prijfung."  Parents,  who  are  excluded  from  regular  school- 
work,  are  invited  to  be  present  upon  these  occasions.  The 
children  are  put  through  a  series  of  questions  upon  which 
they  have  been  previously  drilled.  No  pupil  is  promoted 
on  account  of  his  answers  to  the  questions,  that  matter 
having  already  been  settled.  Care  is  taken  that  only  the 
pupils  who  are  likely  to  be  a  credit  to  the  school,  are  allowed 
to  recite.  It  doubtless  causes  parents  whose  children 
appear  and  do  well  to  feel  some  pride  in  their  achievements, 
but  both  pupils  and  teachers  know  that  the  whole  affair  is 
a  sham.  German  educators  universally  condemn  the  prac- 
tice, and  have  repeatedly  petitioned  the  authorities  to  dis- 
continue it.  In  some  sections  these  petitions  have  secured 
the  abandonment  of  the  exercise.  Inasmuch  as  American 
parents  are  not  prohibited  from  visiting  the  schools,  let 
them  attend  the  regular  exercises  and  witness  the  daily 
work  of  their  children,  and  thus  obtain  a  truer  idea  of  what 
the  school  is  accomplishing.  If  the  teacher  desires  to  get 
the  attention  of  the  school  patrons,  let  him  prepare  special 
exercises  for  that  definite  purpose,  and  invite  them  in  a 
body.  The  review  of  the  school-work  should  not  be 
degraded  into  a  public  exhibition. 


oo6  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Reviews  should  be  both  oral  and  written.  By  the  oral 
review,  the  pupil  is  trained  to  express  himself  fluently  upon 
a  topic  while  standing.  It  is  most  desirable  to  secure 
accurate,  connected,  and  logical  statements,  in  good  English. 
The  review  admits  of  such  treatment  far  better  than  the 
daily  lesson,  where  the  knowledge  is  still  fragmentary. 
The  written  review  accomplishes  the  same  end  in  written 
expression.  It  has  the  advantage  that  all  of  the  pupils  are 
called  upon  to  answer  each  question  simultaneously,  and 
therefore  it  may  be  complete  and  satisfactory.  The  oral 
review,  however,  should  not  be  neglected.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  let  the  written  review  run  into  a  test.  As  the 
test  carries  far  less  weight  than  the  examination,  so  the 
written  review  should  carry  less  weight  than  the  test. 
The  examination,  and  equally  the  test,  must  never  enter  a 
new  field  ;  must  never  touch  ground  that  has  not  pre- 
viously been  covered,  because  so  much  depends  upon  them. 
But  the  review  may  suggest  new  work  without  a  wrong 
being  committed,  since  Uttle  depends  upon  it. 

To  the  review,  the  test,  and  sometimes  the  examina- 
tion, is  added  the  larger  factor  of  the  teacher's  judgment 
based  upon  daily  contact  during  recitation,  and  in  the 
intimate  and  sympathetic  relations  with  the  children. 
Further,  there  is  the  fact  that  promotion  in  itself  does  not 
increase  knowledge.  With  all  of  these  agencies  at  his 
command,  and  with  a  sincere  desire  to  place  the  child 
where  his  greatest  progress  will  be  attained  and  his 
greatest  good  subserved,  we  shall  find  that  but  few  mis- 
takes will  be  made  in  the  matter  of  promotion.  At  the 
same  time  the  work  of  the  school  will  proceed  in  a  natural, 
salutary  manner,  and  the  real  purposes  of  education  will  be 
fostered  and  furthered. 


CHAPTER    XVI, 

THE   RECITATION. 

The  use  of  the  term  "recitation  "  is  rather  unfortunate. 
It  doubtless  grew  out  of  the  earher  practice  of  "hearing" 
lessons  when  the  teachers  were  untrained,  and  when  text- 
books were  prepared  with  a  view  to  that  method,  being 
made  up  of  questions  and  answers.  The  pupils  learned 
the  answers,  the  teacher  read  the  questions  and  saw  to  it 
that  the  answers  of  the  pupils  fitted  those  in  the  book. 
Thus  the  work  of  the  pupils  consisted  in  reciting,  and  the 
period  in  which  this  was  done  was  called  the  recitation. 
This  was  a  very  easy  method  to  follow,  one  that  was  per- 
haps necessary  so  long  as  the  qualifications  of  teachers 
were  so  low.  Any  one  who  could  read,  write,  and  cipher, 
and,  above  all,  maintain  discipline,  could  be  employed  to 
teach  school.  Better  prepared  teachers  and  more  scientific 
methods  of  instruction  have  removed  the  necessity  of 
following  such  a  practice,  and  yet  the  term  "recitation" 
still  clings  to  this  exercise.  In  the  absence  of  any  better 
name,  doubtless  this  will  be  retained  even  though  it 
become  more  and  more  a  misnomer. 

The  Germans  use  a  word  that  expresses  their  idea  of 
this  exercise,  namely,  "  Unterrichtsstunde,"  or  instruction- 
period.  This  term  fits  their  method,  that  of  instructing  or 
imparting,  the  pupils  having  but  few  text-books.  There 
are  no   alternating  periods  of  study  and  recitation  as  is 

207 


208  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

common  m  American  schools,  nor  do  children  need  to 
do  much  home-work.  "  How  do  the  pupils  learn  their 
lessons  ? "  may  well  be  asked  if  they  do  not  study  at  school 
or  at  home.  They  learn  their  lessons  by  means  of  the 
instruction  of  the  teacher  in  class.  He  imparts  the  lesson, 
and  they  absorb  what  he  gives.  Through  skilful  question- 
ing he  finds  out  how  well  his  pupils  have  comprehended  his 
teaching.  Even  the  questioning  has  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing as  well  as  of  proving  their  knowledge.  The 
most  serious  defect  of  this  method  is  that  it  leads  the 
children  to  depend  upon  their  teacher  for  all  of  their 
material,  and  hence  they  are  unable  to  investigate  and 
discover  for  themselves.  Although  they  leave  school 
with  an  excellent  mastery  of  the  subjects  included  in 
their  school  course,  they  lack  the  ability  and  the  disposi. 
tion  to  go  on  with  their  education.  This  is  a  most  vital 
criticism  of  the  German  method,  for  the  most  important 
equipment  of  a  child  upon  leaving  school  is  the  ability 
and  disposition  to  help  himself ;  and  the  justification  of 
this  criticism  is  manifest  in  the  fact  that  the  fine  training 
of  the  eight  years'  common-school  course  for  the  mass  of 
the  people  is  rarely  followed  by  any  further  education. 

Does  not  the  truth  lie  between  the  purely  reciting 
method  of  American  schools  and  the  instniction  method  of 
the  German  schools  }  It  is  certain  that  in  every  recitation 
there  must  be  somethmg  taught.  When  the  teacher  finds 
that  a  period  has  passed  without  the  pupils  having  been 
instructed,  he  cannot  but  admit  failure.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  pupils,  especially  young  children,  must  have  the 
opportunity  to  tell  what  they  know,  must  answer  ques- 
tions. By  telling  or  reciting,  children  directly  instructed 
not   only  fix  the    lessons   in  their  own   mindi*   but   other 


THE    RECITATION, 


209 


children  learn  through  hearing  them  recite.  Every  recita- 
tion, then,  must  consist  of  instruction  by  the  teacher  and 
recitation  by  the  pupils.  This  double  activity  serves  to 
fix  the  material  in  the  minds  of  the  children,  while  it 
prepares  them  to  continue  their  education  after  they  have 
left  the  school  and  are  no  longer  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher. 

I.  Assigning  the  Lesson.  —  When  should  the  lesson  for 
the  next  day  be  assigned  ?  The  practice  of  many  teachers 
is  to  perform  this  important  duty  at  the  close  of  the  recita- 
tion. This  enables  them  to  see  how  well  the  present 
lesson  has  been  prepared  before  going  on  to  the  next.  If 
the  periods  are  long,  say  thirty  or  forty  minutes,  or  if  there 
are  automatic  signals  to  give  warning  of  the  close  of  the 
period,  this  plan  is  practicable.  Few  of  our  schools,  how- 
ever, are  equipped  with  an  automatic  signal  system,  and 
the  periods  are  necessarily  short,  especially  in  a  mixed 
school.  When  the  next  day's  lesson  is  assigned  at  the 
end  of  the  period,  there  is  danger  that  its  importance  will 
not  be  sufficiently  appreciated.  "  Take  the  next  two 
pages,"  or  "Work  the  following  five  examples,"  says  the 
teacher  at  the  last  moment  when  the  time  for  dismissal  of 
the  class  has  come  and  another  class  must  be  called. 
This  indicates  a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  importance  that 
should  be  attached  to  this  duty.  Pupils  go  to  their  seats 
or  to  their  homes  to  flounder  and  become  discouraged  in 
their  preparation,  when  a  few  words  of  wise  direction  and 
instruction  would  have  enabled  them  to  proceed  intelli- 
gently. It  is  a  part  of  the  work  of  assigning  the  new 
lesson  to  call  attention  to  the  essentials,  to  point  out 
special  difficulties,  and  to  give  such  hints  as  may  be  neces- 


2IO  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

sary  to  aid  the  pupil.  This  can  be  done  without  robbing 
them  of  the  pleasure  of  discovery  and  of  doing  the  work 
themselves,  I  have  shown  elsewhere  that  no  teacher 
should  do  work  that  pupils  themselves  can  do  (see  p.  162). 

Failure  properly  to  assign  and  explain  the  lesson  often 
causes  pupils  to  seek  help  from  their  parents,  thus  arous- 
ing criticism  against  the  school  for  setting  such  hard 
tasks.  Perhaps  also  the  parents  antagonize  the  work  of 
the  school  by  the  employment  of  antiquated  methods  in 
assisting  their  children,  I  have  shown  (see  p.  162)  what 
the  parent's  duty  in  this  matter  is.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
teacher's  work  to  prepare  the  child  to  do  his  work,  and 
this  preparation  is  made  in  the  assignment  of  the  lesson.  In 
general,  this  should  occur  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation. 
Then  sufficient  time  can  be  taken  to  give  the  necessary 
instruction  concerning  the  subject.  This  is  sometimes 
more  important  than  hearing  the  lesson  of  the  day,  espe- 
cially if  a  new  field  is  to  be  entered.  When  the  pupils  are 
ready  to  take  up  new  work,  it  matters  little  whether  or  not 
the  old  lesson  is  heard  ;  but  it  is  very  essential  that  the 
new  work  be  explained.  It  may  be  necessary  in  such  a 
case  to  take  the  whole  period  in  explaining  and  assigning 
the  lesson,  and  great  profit  to  the  class  may  follow  such 
instruction. 

With  the  next  lesson  outlined,  the  teacher  can  devote 
the  remaining  time  to  the  day's  work  without  distraction  and 
wich  little  thought  of  the  flight  of  time.  If,  however,  it 
should  be  found  that  the  pupils  have  not  accomplished  the 
day's  task,  and  are  not  ready  to  take  up  the  new  work 
assigned,  only  a  moment  will  be  needed  to  say,  "  Children, 
as  you  have  not  quite  mastered  this  work,  we  shall  have  to 
take  it  over  again  instead  of  the  new  lesson,"     This  will 


THE    RECITATION.  211 

not  often  be  necessary,  for  children  soon  learn  what  is 
expected  of  them,  and  try  to  measure  up  to  the  standard. 
Confidence  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  awakens  in  the  chil- 
dren a  desire  to  be  worthy  of  confidence.  To  assign  the 
lesson  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  may  be  considered 
as  an  expression  of  confidence  that  the  children  have  been 
faithful  in  their  work,  and  that  they  are  ready  to  move  for- 
ward into  a  new  field. 

2o  How  to  Study.  —  Many  pupils  waste  a  great  deal  of 
time  in  futile  and  aimless  work.  If  the  lesson  has  been 
properly  assigned,  the  children  will  not  only  know  what 
the  task  is,  but  also  how  to  accomplish  it.  Some  general 
observations,  however,  may  assist  in  attaining  the  power  of 
wisely  studying. 

a.  The  preparation.  —  Before  beginning  to  study,  the 
child  should  get  all  the  materials,  books,  etc,  that  he  needs, 
so  as  not  to  be  interrupted.  It  would  be  an  unwise  farmer 
that  would  begin  his  harvesting  without  seeing  to  it  that  his 
tools,  his  barns,  his  machines,  were  at  hand  and  in  order ; 
or  a  foolish  carpenter  that  would  commence  to  build  a  house 
without  collecting  the  materials  and  the  tools  he  needed.  So 
the  child  must  be  taught  to  get  everything  ready  before  he 
begins  to  study, 

b.  A  time  for  everything.  —  The  pupil  must  not  be 
allowed  to  turn  from  one  thing  to  another  at  every  impulse  ; 
hence  the  importance  of  specifying  in  the  daily  program 
the  work  of  the  study  as  well  as  of  the  recitation  periods. 
One  thing  at  a  time,  and  that  the  right  thing,  should  be 
the  motto.  This  prevents  the  study  being  desultory  ;  it 
does  not  allow  the  pupil  to  attempt  to  get  a  smattering  of 
uiany  things,  while,  in  reality,  he  acquires  nothing.  Children 


212  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

must  be  caught  to  take  up  the  study  of  each  lesson  in  its 
proper  time,  and  stick  to  each  particular  task  until  it  is 
mastered. 

c.  The  essentials  of  the  lesson.  —  In  every  task  there 
are  essential  things,  and  those  less  essential.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  be  able  to  detect  these,  so  as  to  enable  one  to  devote 
time  and  strength  to  the  most  vital  matters.  It  is  a  part 
of  the  teacher's  duty  to  call  attention  to  the  points  that  are 
essential  and  are  to  be  emphasized.  This  belongs  to  the 
work  of  instruction. 

d.  Comentration.  —  It  is  not  the  number  of  hours  spent 
upon  a  lesson,  but  the  intensity  of  the  work,  that  counts. 
To  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  dawdling  over  a  lesson  is  not 
study.  A  student  was  in  the  habit  of  spending  three  hours 
on  his  Caesar.  He  resolved  to  shorten  the  time  by  concen- 
trating all  of  his  energy  while  he  worked.  He  soon  reduced 
the  time  to  two  hours,  then  to  one,  and  finally  he  acquired 
the  habit  of  doing  in  half  an  hour  what  had  formerly  occu- 
pied three  hours,  and  doing  it  fully  as  well.  The  pupil 
should  be  trained  to  bend  his  whole  energy  to  a  task,  and 
to  concentrate  his  entire  attention  when  engaged  in  study. 
He  must  not  allow  himself  to  be  disturbed  by  any  external 
attractions  or  inconveniences. 

e.  Thoroughness.  —  Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is 
worth  doing  well.  Teach  the  pupil  to  master  each  step 
with  thoroughness  before  proceeding  to  the  next.  In  some 
subjects,  it  may  be  well  to  obtain  a  general  view  first,  and 
then  to  take  the  particulars  successively.  It  is  better  to 
be  thorough  with  a  part  of  the  lesson,  if  that  is  all  that  the 
child  is  able  to  accomplish,  than  to  get  a  smattering  of  the 
whole  and  a  mastery  of  none.  The  teacher  should  be 
'"eady  to  accept  a  part   well   done,   in  preference  to  the 


THE   RECITATION. 


213 


whole  lesson  poorly  prepared,  and   the  pupils  should    be 
taught  to  take  this  view  of  the  case. 

f.  Repetition.  —  Only  by  repeating  the  work  many  times 
can  the  learner  fix  it  in  mind.  After  each  step  has  been 
taken,  let  the  lesson  as  a  whole  be  repeated  until  not  only 
the  particulars  are  known,  but  also  the  relations  of  the  parts 
to  each  other  and  to  the  whole  are  established.  The.  pupil 
must  be  taught  to  go  over  the  work  a  sufficient  number  of 
times  to  make  it  clear  to  his  mind  and  to  fix  it  in  his  mem- 
ory. Although  there  may  be  no  objection  to  the  practice 
of  letting  a  parent  or  some  one  else  hear  the  lesson  to  see 
how  well  it  is  learned,  especially  with  young  children,  the 
pupil  should  train  himself  to  weigh  his  own  knowledge,  and 
estimate  his  thoroughness  of  preparation  without  the  aid  of 
other  persons.  At  least  this  should  be  the  ultimate  end 
sought. 

g.  Conclusion.  —  When  the  lesson  is  learned,  let  it  be 
laid  aside  until  the  recitation.  Many  children  fret  over 
their  lessons  and  scarcely  think  of  anything  else.  They 
peep  into  books  on  their  way  to  school  or  just  before  the 
class  meets,  to  catch  a  last  fleeting  idea  concerning  the 
lesson.  Let  them  be  taught  when  they  work  to  work 
with  all  their  might,  and  when  they  play  to  play  with  all 
their  might.  Work  and  play  —  each  has  its  part  in  life's 
activity,  and  neither  must  trespass  upon  the  other.  Pupils 
will  recite  better  if,  after  studying  according  to  the  plan 
outlined  in  the  foregoing,  and  after  having  completed  their 
preparation,  they  dismiss  all  thought  of  the  lesson  until 
the  recitation  comes. 

The  importance  of  teaching  children  how  to  study  can- 
not be  too  strongly  emphasized.  If  this  lesson  has  been 
well   taught,  the  child  will  do  his  work  more  easily  and 


214  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

better.  It  will  also  prepare  him  to  attack  the  problems  of 
life  with  intelligence  and  wisdom,  and  with  great  hope  of 
success. 

3.  The  Art  of  Questioning.  —  With  young  children 
question  and  answer  will  occupy  a  large  part  of  the  time 
of  the  recitation.  Children  lose  interest  unless  they  can 
take  part  in  the  exercises,  while  the  lecture  method  is  often 
satisfactory  with  adult  students.  Every  teacher  should 
study  the  art  of  questioning,  as  so  much  depends  upon  its 
successful  application.  The  following  suggestions  may 
assist   in  this  study  : 

a.  The  questions  should  be  simple  and  clear.  —  There 
should  be  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as  to  what 
the  teacher  means,  in  order  that  there  may  be  the  desired 
concentration  of  thought  upon  the  answen 

b.  The  questions  sJioiild  be  logical  in  their  sequence.  — 
Although  the  child  may  not  yet  have  reached  the  distinc- 
tive period  of  reasoning,  the  method  of  development  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  questions  must  be  logical.  Other- 
wise there  will  be  confusion  in  the  child's  mind  in  regard 
to  the  lesson.  He  will  fail  to  obtain  an  adequate  concep- 
tion of  the  teacher's  motive. 

c.  The  questions  should  be  the  outgrowth  of  the  teacher  s 
full  knozvledge  of  the  subject,  and  not  the  stereotyped 
questions  of  the  text-book.  —  The  questions  in  the  text- 
book may  be  used  to  aid  in  review,  to  direct  the  thought 
to  all  phases  of  the  subject,  or  to  awaken  interest  in  fur- 
ther investigation  ;  but  they  should  not  be  used  in  con- 
ducting the  recitation.  The  teacher  should  stand  before 
his  class  so  full  of  his  theme  that  the  flow  of  questions 
will  be  rapid,  spontaneous,  direct.    They  will  be  original  so 


THE   RECITATION. 


215 


far  as  their  language,  their  order,  and  their  purpose  are 
concerned.  Only  when  this  is  true  will  the  recitation  be 
enthusiastic,  interesting,  and  profitable,  especially  with 
young  children. 

d.  The  questions  should  have  a  definite  ptcrpose.  — 
Without  a  specific  aim,  no  matter  how  interesting  the  man- 
ner of  the  teacher,  or  how  well  he  puts  his  questions,  the 
desired  end  will  not  be  reached.  A  bright  primary  teacher 
who  had  just  given  an  enthusiastic  lesson  was  asked  by 
the  principal,  who  had  been  present  during  the  recitation, 
"  What  was  the  purpose  of  that  lesson .?  "  "  Why,  I  don't 
know,"  she  replied  in  confusion.  There  must  always  be 
a  clearly  conceived  purpose  in  every  recitation,  and  even  in 
each  of  the  questions  that  are  put  to  the  class. 

e.  The  questions  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  stim- 
tdate  thonght.  —  Direct  questions  should  generally  be 
avoided.  "  Yes  "  and  "  No  "  answers  do  not  prove  thought. 
Single-word  answers,  as  a  rule,  should  be  accepted  only  in 
rapid  review.  Where  no  thought  has  been  aroused,  the 
exercise  must  be  considered  a  failure. 

4.  Necessity  of  Attention.  —  A  college  professor  was 
accustomed  to  become  so  absorbed  in  his  teaching  that  he 
entirely  lost  sight  of  what  was  taking  place  in  his  class- 
room. At  one  time  seven  games  were  in  progress  simul- 
taneously during  his  lecture.  Of  course,  there  Avas  no 
instruction  for  those  who  were  playing  games.  The  first 
essential  in  a  recitation  is  attention,  and  not  until  that  has 
been  secured,  is  teaching  possible.  No  recitation  should 
begin  until  every  pupil  in  the  class  is  attentive.  If  the 
teacher  is  willing  to  continue  an  exercise  with  five  per 
cent  of  the  class  inattentive,  he  will  soon  be  obliged  to  be 


5  if  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

satisfied  ii  ten  or  fifty  per  cent  are  inattentive.  But  if  he 
demands  the  attention  of  the  whole  class,  and  will  not  teach 
without  it,  he  will  soon  get  the  class  into  the  required  con- 
dition. Nothing  is  so  fatal  to  good  order  or  successful 
instructing  as  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  the 
matter  of  attention.  A  young  teacher  was  annoyed  by 
several  pupils  in  her  class  who  were  disposed  to  mischief. 
After  reprimanding  them  without  securing  the  desired  re- 
sult, she  took  out  her  watch  and  silently  noted  the  time,  as 
she  held  the  watch  in  her  hand.  "  What  are  you  doing 
that  for?"  asked  one  of  the  boys.  "Oh,  I  am  taking 
account  of  the  lost  time,"  was  her  reply.  "What  for.?" 
was  asked  again,  "  Why,  in  order  to  know  how  long  to 
keep  you  after  school,"  was  the  quiet  ansv/er.  In  a 
moment  every  pupil  in  the  class  was  in  order  and  giving 
good  attention,  and  the  teacher  had  no  further  trouble 
with  them„  This  plan  was  far  more  effective  than  scolding 
or  loud  demands  for  attention  would  have  been. 

A  few  suggestions  as  to  how  to  secure  and  maintain 
attention  may  be  found  profitable. 

a.  All  disturbing  injliiences  should  be  guarded  against, — 
such  as,  the  flapping  of  window-shades,  wrong  temperature 
of  the  room,  draughts,  sun  shining  in  the  pupil's  face  or  on 
his  desk,  or  annoyances  inflicted  upon  him  by  other  pupils. 
Attention  cannot  long  be  held  if  the  room  is  uncomfort- 
able, if  there  is  unusual  noise,  or  if  one  pupil  is  sticking  a 
pin  into  another. 

b.  Secure  the  attitude  of  attejition,  —  that  is,  an  erect 
position,  facing  the  teacher.  If  possible,  the  children 
should  be  allowed  to  sit  with  their  hands  free ;  but  it  may 
be  necessary  to  require  them,  temporarily  at  least,  to  fold 
their  hands,  especially  if  they  be  little  children.     In  recita- 


THE    RECITATION.  1\J 

tion  the  pupils  should  be  brought  as  close  to  the  teacher 
as  possible.  It  is  difificult  to  hold  the  attention  of  pupils 
who  are  a  long  distance  away,  especially  if  other  pupils  in 
the  room  are  engaged  in  study.  Not  only  the  attention 
but  also  the  effectiveness  of  the  instruction  may  be  said  to 
vary  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  the  pupil  is 
away. 

c.  Make  the  work  interesting.  —  This  duty  rests  upon 
the  teacher  ;  and  so  long  as  the  pupils  are  interested,  their 
attention  can  be  held,  and  no  longer.  Commands  or  arti- 
ficial stimuli  will  fail  more  than  temporarily  to  arrest  and 
hold  the  attention  if  interest  be  wanting. 

d.  The  recitations  must  not  be  too  long. — With  little 
children  they  should  be  very  short,  say  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 
The  length  of  the  period  depends  also  upon  the  subject. 
A  class  experimenting  in  physics  can  give  attention  much 
longer  than  one  in  history  or  logic. 

e.  Never  teach  zvitJiout  attejition.  —  This  is  repeated 
merely  to  give  emphasis  to  a  most  important  requirement. 

5.  Arousing  Interest.  —  Closely  connected  with  atten- 
tion is  interest.  Dr.  Johnson  says :  *'  Interest  is  the 
mother  of  attention  ;  attention  is  the  mother  of  memory  ; 
to  get  memory,  get  her  mother  and  her  grandmother." 
If,  then,  the  pupil  is  to  remember  the  lesson,  his  attention 
must  be  gained  through  the  awakening  of  his  interest. 
With  little  children  interest  is  aroused  through  concrete 
illustration.  The  child  becomes  interested  in  what  he 
sees,  hears,  handles.  Nor  does  the  employment  of  the 
concrete,  as  a  means  of  instruction,  cease  with  little  chil- 
dren. The  preacher  uses  illustration  to  enliven  and  en- 
force the  truths  he  would  teach  ;  the  lawyer  employs  it  in 


21  8  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

his  advocacy  of  cases  in  court  ;  the  surgeon  must  constantly 
utiHze  it  in  his  chnical  work  before  classes.  But  with  the 
child  it  is  the  principal  means  of  awakening  and  retaining 
interest. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  caution  the  teacher  that  an  illus- 
tration is  to  be  used  merely  as  a  means  to  an  end,  and 
not  as  the  end  itself.  Thus,  in  teaching  number,  the 
employment  of  a  great  variety  of  objects  at  one  time  is 
a  detriment  to  the  instruction.  The  interest  of  the  class 
will  be  taken  up  with  the  objects  rather  than  with  the 
number  to  be  taught,  I  have  seen  instructors  attempt  to 
teach  the  number  six,  employing  oranges,  sticks,  marbles, 
beans,  etc.,  as  illustrative  material.  Objects  of  a  single 
kind  should  be  employed  continuously  in  number  work  till 
ihe  concrete  illustration  is  no  longer  necessary.  Without 
doubt  blocks  of  uniform  size  constitute  the  best  apparatus 
for  elementary  work  in  number.  The  pupils  must  not  be 
distracted  by  the  use  of  many  objects;  the  end  sought, 
that  is,  the  learning  of  the  number,  must  be  kept  in  the 
foreground. 

By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  no  variety  is  to  be  intro- 
duced. Children  like  change,  and  the  teacher  should  be 
fertile  in  devices,  so  that  if  one  fails  another  can  be  substi- 
tuted. My  point  is,  that  there  must  not  be  too  many  at 
once.  Let  there  be  variety  in  the  manner  of  presenting 
the  material,  variety  in  illustration,  variety  in  putting  the 
questions. 

Again,  direct  interest  may  be  secured  through  indirect 
means.  If  a  child  L  lound  to  possess  a  fondness  for  a 
thing,  this  fact  may  h^  utilized  to  secure  his  interest  in 
something  that  he  does  not  like.  For  example,  one  child 
likes  drawing ;  another  is  fond  of  birds,  or  plants,  or  na- 


THE    RECITATION.  2,19 

ture  study  ;  another  still  likes  to  work  with  tools.  Help 
this  child  in  his  favorite  pursuit,  on  condition  that  he  per- 
form the  work  which,  in  the  teacher's  broader  view  of  life, 
is  essential  for  him.  Again,  most  boys  have  ideals  as  to 
their  future  which  they  hope  to  realize,  though  m  later  life 
these  ideals  may  change,  as  we  have  seen  elsewhere.  Let 
the  teacher  avail  himself  of  these  interests.  Thus,  a  boy 
dislikes  arithmetic,  but  he  hopes  to  be  a  storekeeper,  or  a 
banker,  or  an  engineer.  Success  in  either  of  these  cannot 
be  obtained  without  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic.  Employ 
his  direct  interest  as  to  his  future  occupation  in  securing 
an  interest  in  arithmetic.  Through  this  means  it  often 
occurs  that  the  interest  becomes  direct  and  the  pupil  ac- 
quires a  fondness  for  what  he  had  previously  disliked. 
Dislike  for  studies  is  often  occasioned  by  ignorance  of 
them,  or  by  inability  to  master  them.  Children  are  gen- 
erally interested  in  what  they  can  do  well.  Show  them 
how  to  accomplish  the  task,  and  interest  will  be  gained. 

It  does  not  follow  by  any  means  that  a  child  should  be 
excused  from  work  that  he  does  not  like.  He  must  be 
taught  to  attack  difficult  problems  with  courage,  to  perform 
unpleasant  tasks  because  they  ought  to  be  performed. 
Every  student  finds  subjects  in  the  curriculum  that  he 
would  gladly  omit,  but  promotion  or  the  final  diploma  can 
be  secured  only  upon  mastering  the  whole  course.  Over- 
coming these  difficulties  gives  mental  and  moral  fibre, 
which  makes  one  strong  to  meet  life's  duties.  The  train- 
ing that  makes  men  does  not  smooth  away  all  ti'ials,  level 
mountains,  prepare  a  bed  of  roses  for  the  child.  Pupils 
must  learn  to  perform  tasks  because  duty  requires  it,  and 
because  it  is  best  that  they  should  be  performed,  and  not 
because  it  may  be  merely  pleasurable. 


220  A    NEW    srCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Finally,  the  teacher  himself  must  be  interested  in  the 
subject  of  instruction.  If  he  is  not,  no  permanent  interest 
can  be  awakened  in  the  pupils.  A  member  of  my  senior 
class  once  came  to  me  and  asked  to  be  excused  from  continu- 
ing a  certain  subject,  "  Why  do  you  wish  to  give  up  this 
work  ? "  I  asked.  "  Because  I  cannot  bear  it,"  was  the 
frank  reply.  Now,  it  is  not  pleasing  to  a  teacher  to  be  told 
by  a  pupil  that  she  cannot  bear  his  work.  I  was  the 
teacher  of  this  particular  class,  and  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  this  girl  I  was  a  failure.  Of  course,  she  had  no 
thought  of  personal  criticism,  and  did  not  recognize  that 
her  request  meant  that.  I  recognized  it,  however,  and 
keenly  felt  the  situation.  "But,"  I  added,  "you  cannot 
graduate  without  this  work."  "Then  I  will  not  graduate," 
she  promptly  declared,  showing  how  deep-seated  her  aver- 
sion had  become.  After  a  few  moments'  reflection,  I  pro- 
posed the  following  compromise  :  She  was  to  continue  in 
the  class  for  two  Aveeks  and  then  come  to  me  again,  and 
if  she  still  desired  to  be  excused  from  the  work,  I 
promised  that  her  wish  should  be  granted.  She  con- 
sented, and  I  began  to  lay  my  plans  to  meet  the  case. 
I  resolved  that  she  should  not  desire  to  withdraw  when 
the  truce  was  concluded,  and  therefore  employed  every 
device  I  knew  to  make  that  recitation  interesting  and 
profitable.  Needless  to  say,  before  the  expiration  of 
the  time  she  came  to  me  and  said,  "This  has  become 
the  most  interesting  subject  to  me,  and  I  have  no  desire 
to  give  it  up."  There  was  no  further  trouble  from  that 
source ;  besides,  I  myself  gained  a  new  interest  in  that 
subject.  The  surest  way  to  interest  a  class  in  any  feature 
of  school-work  is  for  the  teacher  himself  to  secure  an  in- 
terest in  that  work. 


THE    RECITATION.  221 

6-  Use  of  the  Blackboard.  —  American  schoolrooms 
are  usually  liberally  supplied  with  blackboards.  All  of  the 
available  space  is  utilized.  Blackboards  are  intended  not 
only  for  notices,  decorations,  teacher's  work,  etc.,  but  also 
for  the  use  of  pupils.  Classes  can  be  sent  to  the  board  to 
write  out  a  topic,  outline  a  review,  work  an  example,  and 
the  exercise  is  a  most  valuable  practice  for  the  pupils.  It 
cultivates  self-reliance,  stimulates  proper  rivalry,  shows  the 
importance  of  accuracy,  and  trains  the  student  in  logical, 
concise,  and  clear  expression.  All  work  on  the  board 
should  be  neat  and  systematic.  A  plan  of  sending  the 
pupils  to  the  board  should  be  adopted  which  will  secure  the 
most  orderly  and  economical  arrangement.  Drill  in  this 
exercise  will  yield  profitable  results.  The  teacher  should 
give  especial  attention  to  the  manner  of  explaining  black- 
board work,  to  the  attitude  of  the  pupil  while  engaged 
thereat,  to  the  language  used,  as  well  as  to  the  correctness 
of  the  work. 

The  blackboard  can  thus  be  employed  to  impart  and 
emphasize  lessons  that  cannot  well  be  tau^t  otherwise. 
If,  however,  the  exercises  are  loose  and  unsystematic,  if 
disorder  is  occasioned,  the  blackboard  becomes  an  evil 
rather  than  a  valuable  aid. 

7.  Drill.  —  "  Repetition,  repetition,"  must  be  the  eternal 
watchword  if  the  material  is  to  be  well  fixed  in  the  minds 
of  the  pupils.  Very  often  knowledge  is  brought  to  the 
threshold  of  the  child's  consciousness  and  then  allowed  to 
be  dissipated  through  lack  of  drill,  which  is  intended  to 
deepen  the  impression  and  fasten  the  lesson  in  the  child's 
mind.  "  How  many  of  the  class  understand  this  .-'  "  asks 
the  teacher,  and  the  children  raise  their  hands  in  confidence 


222  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

and  with  sincerity.  Tlie  teaclier,  perceiving  the  truth  and 
measuring  the  pupils'  knowledge  by  his  own,  believes  that 
the  lesson  is  comprehended,  and  therefore  concludes  that 
he  may  pass  on  to  a  new  theme.  But  every  lesson  with 
children  must  be  continued  long  after  it  seems  to  be  clear. 
Varied  methods  must  be  employed,  many  questions  put, 
work  repeated.  This  is  drill,  and  it  is  by  drill  that  the 
lesson  is  brought  over  the  threshold  of  the  child's  con- 
sciousness into  his  very  life  and  mental  fibre.  Unless  this 
has  been  done,  the  teaching  is  partially,  perhaps  wholly, 
lost.  In  the  old-time  school,  the  child  had  but  few  sub- 
jects, but  he  went  over  these  again  and  again  until  complete 
mastery  was  gained.  A  few  things  well  learned  are  better 
than  many  things  superficially  gone  over.  This  is  not  to 
be  taken  as  an  advocacy  of  a  return  to  the  old-fashioned 
school  with  its  "three  R's."  Much  time  was  undoubtedly 
wasted  on  the  acquirement  of  the  elementary  studies.  Let 
the  curriculum  be  broad,  but  let  thoroughness  be  demanded, 
even  though  some  subjects  must  be  omitted.  "  Not  how 
much,  but  how  well,"  is  a  good  motto.  Frequent,  system- 
atic, thorough  drill  is  in  harmony  with  that  motto,  and  the 
teacher  should  employ  it  in  every  subject  every  day. 

8.    Steps  of  the  Recitation The  Herbartian  school  of 

pedagogy  lays  great  stress  upon  the  "formal  steps"  of  the 
recitation.  A  general  presentation  of  this  theory  may  be 
found  helpful  in  our  study  of  the  recitation.  The  intelli- 
gent teacher  will  adopt  so  much  of  this  theory  as  suits  his 
peculiar  needs.  Originality  and  spontaneity  in  a  teacher 
are  of  far  greater  importance  than  adherence  to  a  machine- 
like formality  in  performing  work,  even  though  the  latter 
may  be  more  finished  as  a  production.     Every  teacher  pos- 


THE    RECITATION. 


223 


sesses  an  individuality,  and  this  should  be  given  free  scope 
in  conducting  a  recitation.  There  are,  however,  certain 
principles  involved  that  every  teacher  should  know  and 
apply.  Some  of  these  principles  are  presented  in  the  five 
steps  of  the  recitation,  as  follows  : 

a.  Preparation.  —  Reference  is  had  here,  not  to  the 
preparation  which  either  teacher  or  pupil  has  made  before 
coming  to  the  class,  but  to  the  preparation  of  the  children 
to  receive  the  lesson  to  be  taught.  If  a  farmer  were  to 
scatter  seeds  upon  hard,  sod  ground,  perchance  a  few 
grains,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  germinate  and  come  to 
fruitage  ;  but  there  would  be  no  crop.  The  sod  must  be 
turned  by  ploughing,  and  further  prepared  by  harrowing ; 
and  then  the  husbandman  may  sow  the  seed,  and  leave  it 
to  sunshine,  and  rain,  and  changing  season  to  produce  an 
abundant  harvest.  So  the  teacher  must  not  aimlessly 
scatter  the  seeds  of  knowledge  without  preparing  the  pu- 
pils' minds  to  receive  them,  else  much  of  his  labor  will  be 
in  vain.  The  child  is  prepared  for  the  new  by  bringing 
forward  the  old  which  is  already  his  possession.  By  skil- 
ful questions  the  teacher  will  discover  what  the  children 
already  know  concerning  the  material  of  the  proposed  les- 
son. The  teacher  reaches  backward,  as  it  were,  grasps  the 
old,  brings  it  forward,  and  introduces  the  new  to  it.  The 
less  strange  the  new  is,  the  easier  the  child  will  apperceive. 
To  grasp  isolated  knowledge  is  difficult.  Therefore  the 
instructor  seeks  to  remove  as  far  as  may  be  the  strange- 
ness of  the  new  material  by  introducing  the  related  old 
material.  Without  this  preparation,  to  understand  the  les- 
son will  be  difficult ;  much  that  is  sought  will  be  missed : 
hence  the  necessity  of  this  first  step  of  the  recitation. 

b.  Presentation.  --  When  the  soil  is  prepared  the  seed 


224  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

may  be  sown.  We  have  shown  earher  in  this  chapter  that 
not  only  must  the  pupils  recite,  but  also  the  teacher  must 
instruct.  No  recitation  should  be  conducted  without  a 
large  measure  of  instruction.  There  are  many  methods  of 
presenting  the  new  material,  such  as  lecturing  or  telling, 
drawing  out  by  skilful  questioning,  or  by  examining  what 
the  pupil  has  obtained  from  his  own  use  of  text-books. 
The  method  may  be  analytic  or  synthetic,  inductive  or  de- 
ductive, according  to  the  maturity  of  the  children  and  to 
the  nature  of  the  subject.  Or  it  may  be  any  or  all  of 
these  methods  wisely  employed  to  meet  different  types  of 
mind,  and  so  as  to  keep  up  the  interest.  The  presentation 
must  be  clear,  logical  in  arrangement,  explicit,  and  it  must 
be  repeated  a  sufficient  number  of  times  to  be  clearly  un- 
derstood and  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  members  of  the 
class. 

c.  Association.  —  Time  and  again  the  teacher  must 
bring  the  new  into  such  relation  to  the  old  that  the  two 
become  thoroughly  assimilated  and  familiar.  Once  more, 
the  teacher  must  be  sure  that  the  new  knowledge  is  not 
merely  a  stranger  knocking  at  the  door,  but  an  acquaint- 
ance, a  friend  who  has  been  brought  over  the  threshold  of 
the  child's  consciousness.  The  new  material  must  be 
thoroughly  associated  with  what  the  child  already  pos- 
sessed. This  is  done  by  repetition,  by  variety  in  methods 
and  devices  employed,  by  illustration,  and  by  careful  ques- 
tioning until  the  teacher  is  satisfied  that  the  end  has  been 
accomplished. 

d.  Recapitulation.  —  No  lesson  has  been  well  learned 
until  the  pupil  can  restate  the  whole  theme  in  a  summary, 
a  rule,  or  a  recapitulation.  The  ability  to  recall  the  outline 
of  a  lecture  or  a  sermon  indicates  the  clearness  with  which 


THE   RECITATION. 


225 


it  has  been  grasped.  Children  should  be  trained  to  this 
power  by  being  required  to  state  the  principal  points  that 
have  been  brought  out  in  a  lesson.  Many  object  to  pupils 
committing  a  rule  to  memory.  This  objection  is  the  result 
of  a  practice  formerly  much  more  ni  vogue,  whereby  the 
pupils  began  the  study  of  a  subject  by  committing  to 
memory  definitions  and  rules.  When  the  falsity  of  that 
method  came  to  be  understood,  teachers  v/ent  to  the  other 
extreme,  practically  reasoning,  "  The  rule  should  not  be 
learned  before  the  child  understands  it,  hence  it  should 
never  be  learned."  This  reasoning  is  fallacious.  In  gen- 
eral the  truth  of  the  premise  may  be  accepted,  but  the 
conclusion  is  false.  Take,  for  illustration,  an  example  in 
arithmetic.  Let  the  pupil  learn  how  to  work  it ;  then  let 
him  explain  how  he  did  it ;  then,  after  solving  many  prob- 
lems, let  him  tell  in  his  own  language  bow  all  problems  of 
that  kind  are  solved,  making  a  rule  of  his  own,  as  it  were ; 
and  finally,  let  him  commit  to  memory  a  concisely  worded, 
plain,  and  accurate  rule.  To  prepare  a  comprehensive  and 
correct  rule  is  no  easy  task,  and  no  child  can  be  expected 
to  do  it.  It  requires  the  closest  thought  of  a  well-equipped 
and  experienced  mind,  and  it  can  be  done  only  after  con- 
centrated and  long-continued  study.  It  is  idle,  therefore, 
to  expect  a  child  to  be  able  to  prepare  a  rule  that  will  stand 
the  test  of  a  close  analysis. 

A  practice  similar  to  that  suggested  for  arithmetic 
should  be  employed  with  grammar,  history,  and  other  sub- 
jects. Either  a  rule  or  a  summary  which  embraces  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  the  topic  covered  should  complete  the  study 
of  a  subject.  The  knowledge  of  the  child  will  thus  be 
reduced  to  a  series  of  norms  that  arc  stored  away  in  his 
memory,  that  he  understands,  and  that  he  can  recall  when 


2  26  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

authoritative  standards  are  needed.  To  omit  recapitula- 
tion is  to  fail  to  gather  the  points  of  the  lesson  and  to  fix 
them  in  the  mind  against  future  use.  He  is  safer  in  his 
ethical  life  who  is  governed  by  fixed  moral  precepts  ;  he  is 
surer  in  his  language  who  knows  the  rules  of  grammar ; 
he  is  better  equipped  in  mathematics  who,  understanding 
the  operations,  is  familiar  with  the  rules  governing  those 
operations ;  he  is  more  certain  of  his  facts  of  history  who 
possesses  summaries  of  the  events  of  a  period  or  of  a  peo- 
ple. Therefore,  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  recapitula- 
tion after  a  theme  has  been  worked  out.  To  rehearse  the 
salient  features  of  a  lesson  is  a  most  valuable  and  essential 
educational  practice. 

e.  Application.  —  The  final  step  is  to  apply  the  knowl- 
edge gained  to  the  duties  of  every-day  life.  The  child  is 
too  apt  to  think  of  the  school  as  another  world  than  that  in 
which  he  lives  when  out  of  school.  School  life  should  come 
into  close  touch  with  the  verities  of  every-day  life.  Themes 
treated  in  the  school  should  find  their  practical  apphcation 
in  the  home,  in  the  vocation,  and  in  the  social  relations. 
Illustration  is  unnecessary  to  make  this  point  clear.  The 
paving  of  a  street,  the  construction  of  a  house,  the  plant- 
ing or  reaping  of  a  crop,  the  dealing  with  the  grocer,  will 
present  abundant  examples  in  arithmetic  ;  the  presence  of  a 
creek  in  the  neighborhood,  or  of  a  mountain,  or  a  town,  can 
be  utilized  in  work  in  geography;  letter-writing,  description, 
or  composition  affords  practical  application  for  language- 
work ;  and  the  possible  pro.ximity  of  a  battle-ground,  or 
the  scene  of  some  important  event,  wll  supply  material 
for  illustrating  work  in  history.  Thus  the  cultural  and  the 
practical  may  be  brought  into  complete  harmony,  and  the 
school  will  not  fail  in  its  duty  towards  either. 


THE   RECITATION.  227 

The  elaborate  plan  outlined  in  these  five  steps  can 
seldom  be  carried  out  in  a  single  period ;  but  the  teacher 
has  before  him  the  logical  order  suggested  by  them,  and  he 
will  proceed  from  day  to  day  systematically  and  steadily 
until  the  subject  is  mastered  in  its  completeness  as  thus 
outlined. 


CHAPTER   XVIIc 

SPECIALIZATION. 

There  is  a  tendency  with  some  educators  in  recent 
years  to  advocate  an  extreme  of  specialization  which 
amounts  to  individuahsm.  I  believe  that  when  La  Salle 
conceived  the  idea  of  grading  together  pupils  of  about 
the  same  stage  of  adv^ancement,  and  instructing  them 
simultaneously,  he  performed  a  great  service  to  education. 
"  The  educational  crime  of  this  age,"  says  Superintendent 
Greenwood,  "is  too  early  and  too  much  specialization. 
Broad,  deep  scholarship  first ;  later,  specialize,"  Great 
thinkers  from  the  time  of  Sturm  untU  the  present 
have  devoted  much  thought  to  the  formation  of  courses 
of  study  that  will  produce  an  all-round  development  and 
training  of  the  pupil.  These  courses  of  study  have  been 
improved  upon  from  time  to  time  to  keep  pace  with  the 
progress  of  knowledge,  to  meet  the  varying  demands  of 
different  nations  and  different  periods,  and  more  nearly 
to  satisfy  the  progressive  ideals  of  education.  A  course 
of  study  so  formed,  embodying  the  best  thought  and  ripe 
experience  of  many  competent  teachers  for  so  long  a 
period,  surely  should  be  a  safe  guide  for  an  immature 
child.  Add  to  this  the  presence  of  a  wise  and  competent 
teacher,  capable  of  interpreting  the  meaning  and  value  of 
education,  and  it  follows  that  a  better  choice  of  studies 
will  be  made  than  the  child,  subject  to  his  own  volitions 
and  whims,  can  make  for  himself. 

228 


SPECIALIZATION. 


229 


Need  of  General  Culture.  —  Too  early  specialization  has 
a  tendency  to  arrest  a  liberal  and  proper  development,  and 
to  take  from  the  child  the  opportunity  of  "obtaining  a  right 
and  broad  outlook  upon  life  by  too  early  depriving  him  of 
educational  guidance."  The  purpose  of  specialization  is  to 
afford  an  opportunity  for  each  individual  to  develop  his 
natural  abilities  so  as  to  prepare  him  for  the  greatest  possi- 
ble usefulness,  and  to  open  the  way  to  the  enjoyment  of 
life  in  its  largest  measure.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  natural  tendencies  of 
children.  Just  how  far  these  peculiarities  should  be 
humored  is  a  difficult  problem.  No  one  would  desire  to 
fit  a  "round  boy  into  a  square  hole,"  and  doubtless  many 
of  the  failures  in  life  are  due  to  such  attempts.  It  may 
be  hard  to  determine  what  a  child's  natural  bent  really  is. 
Most  children  pass  through  various  epochs  in  life,  in  each 
of  which  there  seems  to  be  a  marked  inclination  to  some 
particular  field  of  study  or  enterprise.  Professor  Miinster- 
berg  relates  his  own  experience  in  illustration  of  this  point. 
At  one  period  it  may  be  a  "craze"  for  bugs  or  butterflies, 
and  one  feels  sure  that  the  child  will  become  a  naturalist ; 
at  another  period  he  is  interested  in  electricity  or  chem- 
istry, and  he  is  marked  out  for  a  scientist ;  again,  he 
is  interested  in  drawing  and  sketching,  and  the  future 
artist  in  embryo  is  detected.  To  discover  the  causes  of  these 
changes  in  the  child's  attitude  towards  various  subjects 
may  not  be  difficult.  His  changing  views  of  life  at  various 
times  may  be  due  to  his  psychological  unfolding,  to  his 
environment,  to  his  playmates,  and  more  than  all  to  his 
teacher.  A  popular  teacher,  enthusiastic  over  a  particular 
branch,  will  invariably  win  pupils  to  love  it,  and  likewise 
to  become  ardent  in  pursuing  it.     It  therefore  does  not  fol- 


<220  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

low  that  an  inclination  towards  a  particular  field  at  some 
period  of  the  child's  life  proves  that  this  is  a  permanent 
interest.  Only  time  and  careful  study  of  the  child  can 
decide  so  important  a  matter. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  child  may  possess  undiscovered 
tendencies  that  have  never  been  aroused.  Generally,  no 
harm  will  be  occasioned  if  they  are  not  awakened  until  a 
broad  foundation  of  general  culture  has  been  laid.  It  m.ay 
even  be  asserted  that  if  the  development  of  these  tendencies 
is  thus  delayed,  greater  ultimate  good  will  be  done  to  the 
child.  With  the  foundation  of  general  education  first  laid, 
the  growth  in  special  and  individual  aptitudes  will  be  more 
rapid,  more  permanent,  and  more  sure. 

A  child  of  four  years  showed  such  remarkable  talent  for 
music  that  he  was  employed  by  a  piano  firm  at  the  Chicago 
Exposition  to  assist  in  giving  daily  concerts.  The  bright, 
beautiful  child,  with  his  great  skill  and  unusual  talent, 
attracted  large  crowds  around  the  booth  whenever  he 
played.  After  Paderewski  had  heard  him  play,  the  great 
master  took  the  boy  in  his  arms  and  said,  "  My  boy,  thank 
God  first  of  all  for  your  wonderful  talent  ;  and  next,  thank 
Him  for  the  friend  He  has  raised  up  to  teach  you."  When 
the  boy  was  six  years  of  age,  this  friend  earnestly  advised 
that  he  be  sent  to  school.  Unfortunately,  the  parents 
refused  to  heed  this  advice,  thinking  that  as  the  boy  had 
a  genius  for  music,  this  was  all-sufficient.  He  thus  became 
a  specialist  at  a  very  early  age,  thereby  ignoring  the  claims 
of  general  development.  The  result  has  been  that  even  in 
his  specialty  he  has  failed  to  achieve  the  success  that  his 
early  years  promised.  Even  genius  cannot  take  the  place 
of  solid  work  and  broad  culture.  The  genius  who  lacks 
general  education  is  apt  to  be  one-sided,  self-opinionated, 


SPECIALIZATION. 


^31 


egotistical,  ungenerous,  and  unappreciative  of  the  talents  of 
others  in  his  own  field.  He  is  wanting  in  the  equilibrium, 
the  stability,  the  common  sense,  that  characterize  the 
well-trained  person. 

As  to  the  culture  needed  to  secure  an  all-round  develop- 
ment, opinions  differ.  I  present,  for  comparison,  three 
outlines  by  different  leaders  : 

Dr.  William  T.  Harris's  scheme : 

1.  Language  studies  as  the  centre. 

2.  Arithmetic. 

3.  Geography. 

4.  History. 

5.  Other  branches. 

Dr.  Charles  A.  McMurry's  scheme  : 

Subject-matter  of  biography. 


I.    History.         J  ^-    ^^''^'°'y- 
-     Storj'. 


d.   Other  parts  of  Uterature. 


2.   Science. 


Grammar. 
The  formal  J  fi.    Writing. 


studies.         <r.    Arithmetic. 

L  d.   Symbols  used  in  reading. 

Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler's  scheme : 

1.  Science. 

2.  Literature. 

3.  ^Esthetic. 

4.  Institutional. 

5.  Religious. 

All  thoughtful  educators  recognize  the  necessity  of  gen- 
eral culture  before  speciaUzation,  not  only  for  the  purpose 
of  bringing  out  all  of  the  powers  of  the  individual,  but  also 
as  a  preparation  for  his  special  work.  As  to  the  time 
when  specialization  should  begin,  or  the  amount  of  previous 


232  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT, 

culture  necessary,  there  is  a  variety  of  opinions.  In  gen- 
eral,  it  may  be  said  that  every  person,  whatever  his  special 
calling,  should  possess  sufficient  culture  to  lead  him  to 
appreciate  other  fields  than  his  own ;  to  prompt  him  to 
respect  other  men's  vocations  and  opinions ;  to  give  him  a 
general  outlook  upon  universal  knowledge.  Such  a  train- 
ing should  prevent  his  vision  being  narrowed  by  the  horizon 
of  his  own  specialty.  The  equivalent  of  a  full  high-school 
course  is  the  least  that  may  be  expected  to  fulfil  these 
requirements. 

Advantages  of  Specialization.  —  i.  Better  teacJiijig.  — 
The  teacher  w^ho  is  a  specialist  in  any  branch  has  an 
opportunity  to  know  his  subject  far  better  than  the  person 
who  must  teach  several  subjects.  To  know  the  literature 
of  a  single  branch  requires  constant  application  and  dili- 
gence. The  bibliography  of  education  for  the  year  1901 
shows  319  books  and  articles  on  education  in  English 
alone,  while  the  annual  output  of  pedagogical  publications 
in  German  is  about  3,500  works.  The  activity  in  other 
fields  of  learning  is  correspondingly  great.  It  thus  be- 
comes impossible  for  any  man  to  keep  pace  with  his  own 
specialty ;  even  more  difficult  for  him  to  be  expert  in 
several  subjects. 

The  specialist,  devoting  his  strength  to  his  own  field, 
narrowing  his  scope  to  the  peculiar  methods  of  that  branch, 
alert  to  everything  new  that  appears  therein,  and  repeat- 
edly presenting  the  same  material,  must  become  eminently 
proficient.  His  subject  is,  in  no  improper  sense,  his 
hobby.  From  the  standpoint  of  knowledge  to  be  gained, 
of  enthusiasm  for  the  study,  of  opportunity  to  obtain  the 
best  and  the  newest,  it  is  a  great  thing  to  be  under  the 


SPECIALIZATION.  233 

teaching  of  a  specialist.     Every  student  should  have  that 
opportunity  at  some  period  in  his  career. 

2.  Concentration  of  study.  —  He  who  is  ready  to  be 
taught  by  a  specialist  should  have  practically  decided  upon 
his  life-work.  He  is  prepared  to  abandon  other  fields  and 
concentrate  his  attention  upon  the  one  subject,  or  that  and 
other  subjects  closely  related  to  it.  To  illustrate  this  point, 
the  student  who  enters  a  German  university  without  having 
definitely  decided  to  limit  his  study  to  a  certain  field  is  likely 
to  waste  his  time.  Many  courses  are  offered  by  professors 
of  great  renown.  At  first  he  is  tempted  to  hear  the  cele- 
brated men  without  regard  to  a  definite  plan  for  the 
future.  He  is  apt  to  matriculate  for  two  or  three  times 
as  many  lectures  as  he  can  profitably  hear.  Until  he  settles 
down  to  some  definite  course,  and  rigidly  adheres  to  that 
regardless  of  other  attractions,  his  work  is  desultory  and 
unsatisfactory.  If  he  is  not  ready  thus  to  concentrate 
his  energy,  he  is  not  ready  to  specialize.  Specialization 
offers  peculiar  inducements  to  concentrated  study. 

3.  Greater  thoroughness.  —  It  is  better  to  know  a  few 
things  well  than  to  have  a  smattering  of  many  things. 
Specialization  enables  the  student  to  obtain  a  thorough 
mastery  of  a  few  things.  The  men  who  have  been  of  the 
greatest  service  to  the  world  in  science,  art,  philosophy, 
religion,  have  been  men  of  singleness  of  purpose,  who  have 
become  masters  of  some  one  chosen  field.  It  is  in  accord 
with  this  idea  that  the  Carnegie  Institute  at  Washington 
devotes  large  sums  of  money  for  the  support  and  encour- 
agement of  specialists  and  investigators.  It  may  have 
been  possible  for  an  Aristotle  in  the  fourth  century,  b.c, 
to  have  "  possessed  a  universality  of  knowledge,"  but  that 
is  impossible  for  any  raan  in  thf  twentieth  century,  a.d. 


•234 


A    NEW   SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


4.  Better  appliajices.  — When  a  teacher  can  devote  him- 
self to  one  field,  he  soon  gathers  about  him  rich  materials 
—  apparatus,  books,  specimens,  collections  —  that  would 
be  impossible  were  his  energies  divided.  He  will  construct, 
buy,  obtain  gifts,  collect  specimens,  until  his  department 
has  the  needed  material  for  illustrating  his  work.  This 
adds  to  the  effectiveness  of  his  teaching,  and  makes  work 
with  him  desirable  and  doubly  profitable  to  the  student. 

Specialization  Below  the  High  School Notwithstanding 

the  value  of  specialization  as  an  educational  practice,  I 
think  it  has  but  little  place  in  the  grammar  school,  for  the 
following  reasons : 

1.  The  children  have  not  yet  gained  the  required  gen- 
eral culture,  as  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  pages, 

2.  Few  children  have  chosen  their  life-work  or  are  pre- 
pared to  choose  it,  and  therefore  they  are  unable  wisely  to 
select  their  own  studies.  We  have  seen  that  even  marked 
tendencies  in  certain  directions  are  no  absolute  proof  of 
permanent  choice. 

3.  The  most  important  feature  of  school-work  at  this 
period  is  the  formation  of  character,  which  should  be  well 
established  before  the  close  of  the  grammar-school  course. 
Now,  the  specialist  who  comes  into  a  room  to  teach  geogra- 
phy is  naturally  intent  upon  brmging  forward  his  pupils  in 
that  subject.  His  efficiency  as  a  teacher  is  determined  by 
the  progress  of  the  class  in  geography.  Being  proficient 
and  enthusiastic  in  that  study,  he  will  doubtless  give  better 
instruction  than  the  grade  teacher  can  give.  The  end  of 
education  to  him  with  that  class  is  a  knowledge  of  geogra- 
phy. The  specialists  in  reading,  arithmetic,  language,  etc., 
have  a  like  puq^ose  for  their  respective  subjects.     .Each 


SPECIALIZATION.  235 

will  seek  to  secure  a  maximum  of  efficiency  in  liis  own 
branch  regardless  of  any  other  work.  It  will  be  admitted 
at  once  that  in  teaching  the  subjects  the  grade  teacher 
cannot  be  expected  to  accomplish  as  much  as  the  special- 
ist. But  is  there  not  something  at  this  period  in  the 
child's  life  that  is  of  even  far  greater  account  than  the 
gaining  of  knowledge .-' 

Then,  too,  the  discipline  of  the  grade  teacher  is  likely 
to  be  more  effective  and  permanent.  He  governs,  not  for 
the  time  being,  but  for  lasting  results  ;  he  seeks  to  teach 
the  child  self-control ;  he  endeavors  to  inculcate  the  prin- 
ciple of  self-government.  Being  with  the  pupils  during 
all  of  the  school  hours,  he  can  study  their  peculiarities, 
shape  their  habits,  form  their  characters.  No  specialist 
can  come  into  such  close  contact  with  the  whole  life  of  a 
class  of  children,  meeting  them,  perhaps,  only  once  a  day, 
as  the  grade  teacher  can  who  is  with  them  the  whole  time. 

The  teaching,  moreover,  is  likely  to  be  more  evenly 
balanced,  since  the  grade  teacher  is  able  to  strengthen  a 
child  that  is  weak  in  one  subject,  and  perhaps  strong  in 
another,  by  allowing  him  to  devote  more  time  to  the  one 
and  less  to  the  other.  The  teacher  views  the  whole  work 
of  the  child,  and  gives  him  aid  where  he  most  needs  it. 
Thus,  the  grade  teacher  should  be  able  to  secure  an  all-sided 
interest  and  a  harmonious  development.  Again,  there  are 
days  when  special  demands  with  respect  to  a  certain  sub- 
ject are  made  upon  a  class.  When  such  extra  work  is  re- 
quired, the  grade  teacher,  having  all  the  work  in  charge,  is 
able  to  lighten  other  work  correspondingly.  Specialists  do 
not  know  the  requirements  in  the  other  departments,  and 
therefore  it  often  happens  that  unusual  demands  may  be 
made  by  several  teachers  upon  the  same  day,  thereby  over- 


11^()  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

whelming  the  pupils  with  heavy  burdens.  Hence  it  seems 
clear  that  it  is  unwise  to  resort  to  specialization  during  the 
period  of  life  when  the  child  is  unable  to  guide  himself 
and  when  character  is  forming,  that  is,  during  the  grammar- 
school  period.  The  importance  of  this  end  of  education, 
the  formation  of  character,  would  be  a  sufficient  reason  for 
this  course  even  if  the  former  argument  for  general  culture 
before  specialization  were  ignored. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  make  exception  to  the  above 
general  principle  in  the  teaching  of  music,  drawing,  and 
manual  training,  subjects  that  as  yet  can  hardly  be  required 
in  the  qualifications  of  all  grade  teachers. 

The  Group  Plan.  —  The  importance  of  the  personal  in- 
fluence of  the  teacher  is  so  thoroughly  recognized  in  some 
quarters,  that  instead  of  specializing  in  the  elementary 
work,  quite  the  opposite  extreme  has  been  adopted.  Thus, 
when  a  class  is  promoted,  the  teacher  moves  up  with  it 
each  year  for,  perhaps,  three  or  four  years,  after  which 
she  returns  to  the  beginning  and  starts  with  another 
group.  This  enables  a  teacher,  having  his  pupils  for  so 
long  a  period,  to  make  a  stronger  impression  upon  them,  as 
well  as  to  adopt  a  broader  plan  for  their  training,  than  is 
possible  where  classes  change  teachers  every  year.  It  is 
also  a  good  thing  for  the  teacher,  who  will  thereby  escape 
the  danger  of  falling  into  ruts  through  doing  the  same 
work  year  after  year.  As  the  group  covers  only  three  or 
four  years,  it  does  not  take  him  too  far  away  from  his 
chosen  field  of  activity  as  a  primary,  an  intermediate,  or  a 
grammar  school  teacher.  The  third-grade  teacher  surely 
will  readily  adapt  himself  to  the  methods  and  the  subjects 
of  the  second  or  the  fourth  grade. 


SPECIALIZATION.  237 

By  this  plan  the  strong  personality  of  the  teacher  will 
have  time  to  make  a  permanent  impression  upon  the  pupils, 
such  as  is  impossible  under  specialization  or  under  the 
plan  which  keeps  the  teacher  in  the  same  grade  year  after 
year.  Formerly  teachers'  salaries  were  graded  solely  ac- 
cording to  the  position  held,  those  in  the  primary  grades 
being  lowest.  If  this  were  still  the  practice,  the  teacher 
would  object  to  returning  to  begin  with  a  new  group  ; 
but  fortunately  most  teachers  are  now  remunerated  ac- 
cording to  their  efficiency  and  to  their  experience,  with 
little  regard  to  the  grade  they  teach. 

"  But  what  if  the  teacher's  personality  is  undesirable  .'*  " 
asks  one.  No  ideal  scheme  of  education  can  consider  such 
teachers.  It  is  our  duty  to  aim  high ;  and  if  a  teacher's 
personality  and  power  over  children  are  such  as  to  defeat 
the  aim,  and  prevent  the  attainment  of  the  ideals,  he  must 
be  removed.  Our  theory  includes  only  good  teachers, 
and  we  shall  secure  them  when  it  becomes  clear  that  no 
others  will  be  accepted.  To  take  poor  teachers  into  ac- 
count in  a  philosophy  of  education  is  to  be  content  with 
the  present  and  expect  no  further  progress.  Well-pre- 
pared, skilled,  enthusiastic  teachers  are  the  first  essential  of 
any  school  system,  and  without  these  all  plans  are  vain. 

Specialization  in  the  High  School.  —  When  the  child 
passes  into  the  high  school,  the  problem  begins  to  assume 
a  different  aspect.  He  is  more  capable  of  self -guidance, 
his  character  is  pretty  well  established,  and  the  personal 
influence  of  the  teacher  is  not  so  vital  to  him.  At  the 
same  time,  the  subjects  being  more  advanced,  there  is 
greater  reason  for  specialization.  The  high-school  studies 
make  greater  demands  upon  the  teacher,  and  practically 


238  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

necessitate  his  being  a  specialist.  But  it  does  not  follow 
that  the  pupils  should  elect  their  work  upon  entering  the 
high  school.  They  have  not  yet  the  broad,  general  cul- 
ture which  has  been  shown  to  be  essential,  nor  are 
they  <vise  enough  to  choose  what  is  best  for  them.  In 
making  their  choice,  the  personality  of  a  teacher,  the 
difficulty  of  a  subject,  the  traditions  handed  do\vn  from 
the  older  students,  and  personal  taste,  may  enter.  Surely 
the  students  of  education,  the  thinkers,  the  eminent  teach- 
ers, who  for  centuries  have  been  constructing  courses 
of  study,  and  have  transmitted  to  us  the  accumulated 
results  of  their  research  and  study,  are  more  capable 
of  deciding  such  a  question  than  a  fifteen-year-old  boy  or 
girl. 

Hence,  while  the  teachers  of  the  high  school  may  be 
specialists,  and  thus  able  to  offer  superior  instruction,  the 
choice  of  subjects  and  the  arrangement  of  courses  should 
not  be  left  to  the  pupils.  In  colleges  the  tendency  is  to  re- 
quire the  students  to  take  a  specified  course  the  first  year, 
until  they  are  familiar  with  their  new  environment,  and 
until  they  are  more  settled  as  to  their  chosen  career  ;  in 
each  of  the  succeeding  years  there  is  an  increasing  amount 
of  elective  work  until  the  senior  year,  when  the  student 
practically  chooses  all  of  his  work.  In  the  university 
proper,  where  students  are  definitely  preparing  for  a  pro- 
fession, they  are  allowed  to  devote  all  of  their  time  to  spe- 
cial lines  of  work  and  investigation. 

A  sound  educational  policy,  then,  would  seem  to  require 
that  there  shall  be  no  specialization  in  the  elementary 
school,  very  little  in  the  high  school,  a  gradually  increased 
amount  in  the  college  classes,  and  only  in  the  university 
obtain  throucfhout  the  entire  course. 


SPECIALIZATION.  239 

Different  High-School  Courses Most  high  schools  offer 

a  classical,  a  scientific,  an  EngHsh,  and  a  commercial  course. 
These  may  be  modified  so  as  to  combine  two  or  more 
courses,  but  this  nomenclature  is  sufficiently  comprehen- 
sive. The  choice  of  course  is  also  an  important  matter. 
Children,  as  we  have  said,  should  not  be  allowed  the 
decision  of  this  question.  They  are  too  immature  and  too 
uncertain  as  to  their  future  vocation  to  act  with  wisdom 
and  judgment.  They  are  apt  to  choose  what  they  believe 
to  be  the  easiest  course  or  the  most  popular  one.  The 
persons  most  competent  to  advise  them  are  their  grammar- 
school  teachers,  who  know  their  pupils'  capacity  and  their 
aptitudes,  and  are  acquainted  with  their  limitations.  They 
know,  also,  the  advantages  and  requirements  of  the  high- 
school  courses.  Hence,  every  child  that  goes  up  from  the 
grammar  to  the  high  school  should  be  armed  with  the 
advice  and  guidance  of  his  former  teachers.  They  have 
time  to  consider  well  what  is  best  for  each  pupil,  whereas 
the  high-school  faculty  must  necessarily  decide  hastily 
when  large  numbers  are  being  admitted.  Parents  also 
should  be  consulted,  and  their  intentions  as  to  the  future 
of  their  children  taken  into  account.  If  the  child  is  to  go 
to  college,  prepare  for  business  or  for  the  general  purposes 
of  life,  the  appropriate  high-school  course  should  be  se- 
lected. If,  indeed,  the  high  school  is  to  be  the  "people's 
college,"  beyond  which  the  student  is  not  to  go,  obviously 
the  course  should  be,  as  far  as  may  be,  the  one  that  is 
complete  in  itself,  rather  than  one  that  contemplates  fur- 
ther study.  The  possibilities  of  a  change  of  plan  at  the 
completion  of  the  high-school  course,  whereby  a  college  or 
other  subsequent  training  may  be  entered  upon,  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of.     It  often  occurs,  after  the  high  school  is 


240  A   NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

completed  and  the  student  finds  himself  prepared  to  enter 
a  higher  institution,  that  he  will  obtain  means  to  enable 
him  to  take  advantage  of  an  opportunity  which  had  seemed 
beyond  his  reach.  For  there  are  so  many  ways  of  helping 
worthy  students  to  help  themselves,  that  practically  none 
need  be  excluded  from  the  advantages  of  higher  education. 
In  a  word,  each  student  should  go  up  to  the  high  school 
with  the  advice  of  his  former  teachers ;  and  this  advice 
should  be  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  individual,  upon 
his  tastes  and  abilities,  and  upon  his  purposes  as  derived 
from  consultation  with  him  and  his  parents.  Counsel 
should  be  sought  also  of  the  high-school  faculty.  Thus,  it 
may  be  anticipated  that  fewer  mistakes  will  be  made  than 
if  the  child  be  left  to  his  own  immature  judgment,  and  he 
will  be  furnished  with  such  training  as  his  time,  his  abil- 
ity, and  the  means  at  command,  make  possible  for  hW 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

DUTY    OF   THE   TEACHER. 

I.  To  His  Pupils.  — The  school  is  for  the  children,  and 
the  teacher's  first  thought  should  be  for  them.  During 
the  hours  that  the  pupils  are  in  school,  at  least,  the  teacher 
stands  in  the  place  of  the  parent,  and  often  for  many 
hours  out  of  school.  Their  health  should  be  guarded  with 
intelligent  care.  The  danger  from  wet  feet,  damp  clothing, 
and  draughts  must  be  understood,  and  means  taken  to 
prevent  disaster.  The  bad  effects  of  improper  and  un- 
wholesome food  should  be  taught,  and  the  nature  of  suit- 
able clothing  explained.  While  the  teacher  may  be  unable 
to  correct  the  evils  of  bad  food  and  improper  clothing,  it 
must  be  his  duty  to  call  attention  to  them,  and  instruct  the 
children  as  to  what  is  right.  The  effect  of  such  instruc- 
tion may  not  be  immediately  apparent,  but  it  cannot  fail 
to  do  good  if  wisely  conducted  and  persistently  given.  I 
once  heard  a  teacher  in  Leipsic  giving  instruction  in  hy- 
giene to  a  class  of  first-year  pupils,  —  boys  between  six 
and  seven  years  old.  The  special  theme  was  bread,  and 
he  taught  that  no  bread  should  be  eaten  until  it  is  twenty- 
four  hours  old.  As  a  result  of  this  kind  of  teaching  for 
many  years,  the  German  people  rarely  eat  warm,  fresh 
bread,  and  as  a  consequence  they  are  much  less  liable  to 
indigestion.  Instruction  of  this  kind  would  ultimately 
have  a  great  and  salutary  effect  upon  the  health  of  the 
people  at  large,   and  would  greatly  reduce  the  number  of 

241 


242  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

cases  of  dyspepsia  and  kindred  diseases.  With  regard, 
also,  to  the  use  of  alcohohc  beverages,  proper  instruction 
is  the  best  means  of  checking  the  evils  of  intemperance. 
If  the  teacher  is  "  the  high  priest  of  the  future,"  in  no 
better  way  can  he  serve  his  country  than  by  teaching  the 
children  what  they  shall  eat  and  what  they  shall  drink. 

The  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  the  symptoms  of 
diseases  common  to  children,  such  as  diphtheria,  measles, 
mumps,  scarlet  fever,  etc.  A  dull  eye,  a  flushed  face,  a 
headache,  a  sore  throat,  a  fever,  are  indications  of  serious 
disorder,  and  the  child  exhibiting  any  of  these  signs  should 
be  promptly  removed  from  the  school.  It  is  better  to 
make  a  mistake  in  removing  a  child  believed  to  be  affected 
with  a  contagious  disease  than  to  expose  a  whole  school  to 
danger.  When  a  contagion  breaks  out  among  the  pupils, 
the  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  the  means  to  be  em- 
ployed thoroughly  to  disinfect  the  school,  even  though  a 
representative  of  the  board  of  health  be  at  hand,  or  the 
community  employ  a  school  physician.  He  should  also 
be  alert  to  discover  defects  in  eyesight  or  hearing,  and 
prompt  to  inform  and  interest  the  parents  so  that  relief 
may  be  afforded.  Prejudices  as  to  wearing  spectacles  are 
to  be  overcome.  I  once  noticed  a  boy  holding  his  book 
very  close  to  his  face,  and  upon  examination  found  him  to 
be  extremely  near-sighted.  I  saw  his  parents  and  told 
them  that  he  should  have  glasses  at  once,  but  they  objected 
on  the  ground  that  he  w^as  only  twelve  years  old.  WTien, 
however,  they  were  prevailed  upon  to  ha\'e  his  eyes  exam- 
ined and  suitable  glasses  supplied,  a  whole  world  that  had 
been  in  darkness  to  him  was  revealed  through  th'^  enlarge- 
ment of  his  horizon. 

The  importance  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  well-being 


DUTY    OF   THE    TEACHER.  243 

of  the  child  is  more  fully  appreciated  than  heretofore.  It 
has  been  treated  elsewhere  (see  p.  19),  and  therefore  a 
further  discussion  of  the  teacher's  duty  with  reference  to 
these  sides  of  educational  development  will  not  be  needed 
here.  The  training  of  the  intellect  has  always  had  a  large 
place  in  school-work,  and  in  recent  times  moral  training  is 
receiving  more  attention.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  aim 
to  secure  a  well-balanced  development  of  all  the  powers  of 
the  child;  —  "the  hand,  the  head,  the  heart,"  as  Professor 
Stoy  puts  it,  must  be  included  in  the  all-round  education 
of  the  all-round  man. 

2.  To  the  Parents.  —  While  the  teacher  for  quite  a  part 
of  the  day  stands  in  the  place  of  the  parents,  this  can 
never  absolve  them  from  their  duty  to  their  children. 
Children  are  "  the  gift  of  God  "  to  the  home,  and  parents 
are  their  natural  educators.  If  the  demands  of  civiliza- 
tion have  caused  a  division  of  labor,  thereby  making  the 
school  a  necessity,  nevertheless  the  responsibility  of  parents 
in  the  education  of  their  offspring  can  never  cease.  This 
is  a  natural  duty  belonging  to  parenthood,  which  W.  J. 
Long  shows  is  not  shirked  by  lower  animals  in  the  care  and 
bringing  up  of  their  young.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher 
to  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  parents,  to  inform  them  of 
the  progress  or  the  serious  misconduct  of  their  children, 
and  of  all  other  matters  of  vital  interest  to  them.  In 
these  things  there  should  be  perfect  frankness.  While  in 
charge  of  a  young  ladies'  boarding-school  the  importance 
of  this  was  forcibly  brought  home  to  me.  A  young  lady 
had  been  guilty  of  a  serious  offence,  and  I  told  her  its 
repetition  would  be  followed  by  expulsion,  and  that  I 
purposed  notifying  her  father  of  the  facts.     She  pleaded 


244  ^   ^^^^    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

with  me  not  to  bring  this  sorrow  upon  him,  promising 
most  solemnly  that  the  offence  would  never  be  repeated. 
I  finally  yielded  to  her  importunity,  and  did  not  notify 
her  father.  It  was  not  many  weeks  before  she  was 
again  guilty  of  the  offence,  and  I  suspended  her  at  once 
and  notified  her  father.  When  I  saw  him  he  asked  me, 
"  Why  didn't  you  notify  me  ?  I  might  have  saved  her  and 
myself  this  disgrace  had  you  done  so."  The  co-operation 
of  parents  should  be  invited  by  frankly  taking  them  into 
full  confidence  in  all  important  matters.  Surely  no  one 
should  be  more  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  children 
than  their  own  parents.  Through  periodical  reports  par- 
ents should  be  informed  of  the  work  and  deportment  of 
their  children,  and,  when  necessary,  these  should  befoi- 
lowed  up  with  personal  explanations. 

Parents'  meetings.  —  One  of  the  best  means  of  reaching 
the  parents  is  through  public  meetings  held  regularly.  In 
these  meetings  teachers  and  parents  come  together  to 
discuss  their  mutual  interests  and  the  good  of  the  school. 
There  are  many  such  organizations  that  are  doing  incalcu- 
lable good.  I  have  in  mind  one  which  holds  monthly 
meetings  at  which  practically  the  whole  school  community 
—  children,  parents,  teachers  —  gather.  Lectures  on 
school  subjects  are  given,  recitations  and  other  exercises 
by  the  children  are  offered,  and  other  entertainment 
furnished.  It  affords  an  opportunity  to  present  work  of 
the  school  when  parents  are  in  a  most  happy  and  sym- 
pathetic frame  of  mind,  and  the  teacher  is  thus  enabled  to 
bring  matters  to  their  attention  which  it  would  be  difficult 
to  do  under  other  circumstances.  The  policy  of  the  school 
may  be  made  known,  co-operation  invited,  and  friction 
avoided.     Then,  this  organization  can  be  utilized  to  seek 


DUTY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  245 

out  and  care  for  needy  children,  who  may  be  kept  from 
school  by  lack  of  clothing  or  for  some  other  reason. 
Thus  the  whole  community  becomes  interested  in  the 
success  of  the  school  and  in  keeping  children  regularly 
there.  Besides  this,  it  has  the  effect  of  making  the  school 
and  the  teachers  popular.  Every  school  should  have  such 
an  organization.  Besides,  the  interest  awakened  for  the 
school  and  its  work,  together  with  the  cordial  relation  that 
it  fosters  between  teachers  and  parents,  and  the  increased 
interest  taken  by  the  pupils  through  knowing  that  the 
whole  community  is  proud  of  their  school  and  is  sustain- 
ing it,  are  means  of  enlightening  and  instructing  the 
parents  themselves.  Lectures  on  educational  themes  and 
discussions  of  school  matters  set  them  to  thinking  of 
questions  that  are  quite  new  to  them.  The  definite  state- 
ments by  the  teacher  of  matters  that  concern  the  school 
and  their  children,  furnish  them  needed  information,  and 
prepare  them  to  understand  new  measures  that  may  be 
proposed,  and  prevent  them  from  antagonizing  honest  efforts 
that  may  be  made  to  improve  the  school.  If  the  teacher 
can  get  the  ear  of  the  parents  he  will  have  little  difficulty  in 
carrying  forward  any  reasonable  measure  of  improvement, 
and  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  through  the  parents' 
meetings. 

3.  To  the  Community. — What  has  been  said  in  regard 
to  parents'  meetings  might  well  have  been  said  under  this 
head.  It  is  certain  that  if  these  meetings  are  inaugurated 
and  sustained  with  enthusiasm,  the  teacher  will  not  be 
negligent  of  the  duties  which  I  am  about  to  point  out. 
But  many  schools  do  not  have  this  important  auxiliary,  and 
therefore   it  may  be   profitable  to  consider  the  teacher's 


046  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

duty  to  the  community  in  its  general  bearing.  WTiile  the 
teacher  may  say,  "  I  am  employed  to  teach  the  school,  and 
my  time  is  my  own  when  the  school  day  is  done,"  such  a 
view  is  very  narrow.  It  would  also  be  ver)'  disastrous  to 
his  highest  success,  especially  in  a  small  community.  True 
enough,  the  school  is  the  teacher's  first  duty,  and  he  must 
not  let  society  or  outside  interests,  not  even  church  work, 
however  meritorious  that  may  be,  so  exhaust  his  strength 
or  monopolize  his  time  as  to  cripple  him  for  school  duties. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  must  not  draw  himself  into  a  shell 
of  exclusiveness,  nor  must  he  ignore  the  claims  of  society, 
even  on  the  plea  of  absorption  in  school-work.  Such  work 
will  be  easier  and  more  congenial  if  sustained  by  the  mterest 
of  the  people,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  will  be  far  more 
effective. 

Some  years  ago  I  became  very  much  interested  in  a 
young  man,  a  graduate  of  one  of  our  best  colleges,  who  had ' 
taken  his  first  position  as  principal  of  a  village  school  hav- 
ing six  or  seven  teachers.  He  was  a  fine,  scholarly  young 
fellow,  in  earnest  as  to  his  work,  and  an  excellent  teacher. 
In  conversation  with  me  he  said :  "  I  am  devoting  all  my 
strength  to  my  school.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  after  tak- 
ing necessary  exercise,  I  go  to  my  room  and  shut  myself 
up.  I  seldom  go  to  church,  and  never  go  out  into  society. 
I  make  no  acquaintances  and  want  none.  They  are  not 
the  kind  of  people  I  care  to  associate  with."  I  suggested 
to  him  that  they  were  the  parents  of  his  pupils,  and  that 
they  supported  the  school,  "  Well,"  said  he,  "  I  give  them 
a  good  school,  and  that  is  all  they  can  ask  of  me."  It  was 
in  vain  that  I  tried  to  convince  him  that  he  was  making  a 
mistake,  and  that  he  owed  the  community  something  besides 
his  school-work.     He  had  to  learn  his  lesson  in  his  own 


DUTY    OF   THE    TEACHER.  I^j 

way,  and  he  learned  it  before  the  close  of  his  first  year. 
He  wrote  me  as  follows :  "  I  have  made  a  mistake  in  ncjt 
heeding  }'Our  advice.  I  have  been  asked  to  resign  at  the 
close  of  the  year.  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  my 
work  in  the  school  has  been  satisfactory,  but  I  have  no 
friends  in  the  community,  no  one  to  say  a  good  word  for 
me,  for  no  one  knows  me  or  has  the  slightest  interest  in 
me.     My  exclusiveness  is  bearing  its  fruit  —  I've  got  to 

go. 

Quite  different  is  the  case  of  another  principal  in  the 
same  vicinity.  There  is  scarcely  an  interest  in  the  village  — 
social,  moral,  religious,  or  even  business  matters  —  with 
which  he  is  not  identified.  His  advice  is  sought,  his  opinion 
respected,  his  aid  solicited,  in  all  matters  connected  with 
the  life  of  the  community,  and  there  is  no  man  in  that 
village  who  is  more  beloved  and  honored.  He  has  been  in 
the  same  school  for  over  thirty  years.  Nor  has  his  school 
suffered  on  account  of  his  outside  activity.  It  has  been 
strengthened  and  made  efficient  thereby,  because  he  has 
won  the  confidence  of  his  people  through  his  interest  in  the 
affairs  of  the  town,  and  they  believe  in  and  support  him  in 
his  educational  work.  He  is  a  citizen  as  well  as  a  school- 
master, and  his  people  admire  him  because  he  is  both. 

The  teacher  owes  it  to  the  community  to  show  proper 
respect  for  sacred  things.  There  are  but  few  parents  of 
whatever  religious  creed,  or  of  none,  who  do  not  feel  safer 
if  the  instnictor  of  their  children  is  a  man  who  reverences 
God  and  shows  respect  for  His  commandments.  The 
sabbath  should  be  kept,  church  attended  —  the  church  of 
his  choice,  no  matter  which  ;  and  a  proper  regard  for  pub- 
lic sentiment  as  to  temperance  and  other  moral  questions 
shown.    There  is  no  doubt  that  the  great  majority  of  people 


248  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

in  our  American  communities  reverence  religion  and  its 
ordinances,  and  live  according  to  an  ethical  code.  Hence 
the  teacher  who  stands  before  the  people  as  an  example, 
and  whose  moral  influence,  as  we  have  seen,  is  great,  owes  it 
to  the  community  to  conduct  his  life  in  agreement  with  the 
requirements  of  public  sentiment.  Of  course,  this  does  not 
mean  that  he  should  practise  hypocrisy  ;  it  has  been  insisted 
elsewhere  that  the  teacher  must  be  genuine  (p.  4)  ;  but  a 
young  teacher  may  still  be  in  doubt  upon  some  questions, 
and,  in  such  cases,  he  should  defer  to  the  common  feeling. 
If  he  is  imbued  with  atheistic  doctrine,  or  has  loose  notions 
of  morals,  he  has  no  business  to  be  a  school-teacher.  A 
popular  young  principal  had  become  somewhat  unsettled  in 
his  religious  views,  and  was  disposed  to  talk  about  the  mat- 
ter quite  freely  among  his  pupils  and  about  the  village. 
The  people  were  aroused,  and  the  young  man  found  him- 
self under  severe  criticism.  I  suggested  to  him  that  if  he 
could  not  believe  as  most  orthodox  people  do,  he  should,  at 
least,  be  silent,  and  not  destroy  foundations  that  were  held 
sound  by  most  of  the  community.  I  told  him  that  I  thought 
he  owed  this  to  them,  and  he  took  my  view  of  it.  The 
people  did  not  object  to  his  exercising  the  right  of  indi- 
vidual opinion,  but  they  did  object  to  his  teaching  their 
children,  either  in  or  out  of  school,  opinions  concerning 
which  even  he  was  still  in  doubt. 

4.  To  the  School  Board.  —  The  members  of  the  school 
board  are  naturally  the  friends  of  the  teacher.  They  have 
selected  him,  and  his  success  is  a  proof  of  their  good  judg- 
ment and  wisdom.  The  teacher  should  do  nothing  to 
alienate  the  school  board,  either  by  ignoring  them,  or  by 
showing  lack  of  respect.     They  are  the  chosen  representa- 


DUTY    OF   THE    TEACHER.  249 

tives  of  the  people,  and,  as  such,  should  be  respected 
regardless  of  personal  characteristics,  regardless  of  social 
or  intellectual  qualities.  A  State  superintendent  of  schools 
was  called  upon  by  a  friend  to  adjust  a  difference  between 
him  and  his  board.  After  meeting  the  board,  the  superin- 
tendent returned  to  his  friend  and  said :  "  You  have  been 
indiscreet  in  your  remarks  about  members  of  the  school 
board,  and  they  are  deeply  offended.  You  will  have  to  go. 
I  can  do  nothing  with  them."  "  But  I  have  merely  told 
the  truth,"  said  the  young  man  ;  "they  are  numskulls,  and 
everybody  knows  it."  "That  may  be,"  replied  his  friend, 
"  but  you  ought  not  to  have  said  so.  There  is  nothing  left 
for  you  but  to  resign." 

I  have  said  that  the  school  trustee  is  the  natural  friend 
of  the  teacher.  If  he  is  not  held  to  this  relation,  it  will  be 
largely  the  teacher's  fault.  Keep  him  informed  of  the 
workings  of  the  school.  Report  cases  of  discipline  early 
to  him,  so  that,  if  complaint  comes,  he  will  be  forewarned 
and  prepared.  As  an  official,  he  will  appreciate  such  cour- 
tesy, and,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  will  be  predisposed 
to  the  teacher's  side  of  the  case.  Talk  freely  of  the  plans 
of  the  school  and  get  him  interested.  He  stands  between 
the  teacher  and  the  people,  and  is  desirous  of  rendering  the 
•community  a  service  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
teacher.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  teacher  should  be  a 
sycophant  or  surrender  his  self-respect.  "  Hello,  Bill !  " 
said  a  man  who  stuck  his  head  into  a  superintendent's 
office.  "  Has  Miss  Blank  a  certificate  to  teach  .? "  "  No," 
was  the  reply ;  "  she  is  not  able  to  pass  the  examination, 
and  is  not  fit  to  be  a  teacher."  "  Never  mind  about  that," 
said  the  man;  "she's  a  friend  of  mine,  and  I'm  going  to 
give  her  a  position  in  the  schools.     You  see  that  she  gets 


250 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


a  certificate."  This  man  was  a  member  of  the  school 
board  and  a  political  boss.  To  offend  him  would  mean 
dismissal,  and  the  superintendent  had  not  the  courage  to 
defy  him,  and  therefore  he  submitted.  There  is  no  call 
for  such  surrender  of  luanhood  as  this,  and  the  teacher  that 
yields  compliance  to  such  demands  is  unfit  for  his  office. 
The  same  respect  that  the  teacher  renders  to  the  school 
board  should  in  turn  be  given  to  him  by  them.  Only 
when  the  courtesies  are  from  both  sides,  only  when  respect 
is  mutual,  can  there  be  continued  cordial  relations. 

There  are  duties  that  are  peculiar  to  the  office  of  the 
school  trustee.  These  are  principally  external,  and  include 
the  material  side  of  school  administration.  The  internal 
workings  of  the  school  —  the  discipline,  the  instruction,  the 
training  of  the  pupils,  the  course  of  study  —  are  matters 
that  belong  to  the  teacher  as  an  educational  expert.  The 
school  board  of  Quincy,  Mass.,  recognized  this  relation 
when  they  called  Colonel  Parker  to  their  superintendency, 
and  their  action  made  them  and  their  schools  famous. 
When  the  school  board  sustain  their  teachers  by  every 
moral  and  material  means  at  their  command,  when  the 
teachers  are  competent  to  conduct  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  school,  and  when  these  two  forces  work  together  in 
perfect  harmony,  it  may  be  expected  that  the  best  educa- 
tional results  will  follow. 

5.  To  His  Profession.  —  It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher 
to  do  what  he  can  to  sustain,  dignify,  and  awaken  respect 
for  his  calling.  There  is  need  in  the  teachers'  profession 
of  more  of  the  spirit  of  loyalty,  the  mutual  support,  the 
fidelity  which  members  of  other  professions  show  each 
other.       There    is    a  variety  of    means  by  which  he  will 


DUTY    OF    THE   TEACHER.  25 1 

dignify  the  profession  to  which  he  belongs.  Let  us  note 
some  of  these. 

A  good  preparation.  —  The  teacher  owes  it  to  his  pro- 
fession to  secure  a  good  preparation.  If  a  profession  is 
to  command  respect,  its  members  must  recognize  its  char- 
acter by  securing  the  very  best  possible  training  for  its 
duties.  Some  claim  that  there  is  no  teaching  profession  be- 
cause so  many  of  its  members  have  but  little  professional 
training.  Certainly  great  improvement  has  been  made, 
but  there  remains  much  more  to  be  done.  Normal  schools, 
teachers'  colleges,  training  schools,  and  pedagogical  depart- 
ments in  colleges,  are  teaching  more  than  a  hundred  thou- 
sand students  in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching.  School 
boards  are  demanding  higher  qualifications  in  the  teachers 
they  employ,  and  the  past  few  years  have  witnessed  great 
improvements  in  the  facilities  for  giving  teachers  better 
equipment.  Just  so  far  as  the  teacher  recognizes  this 
trend,  and  adapts  himself  to  it,  he  is  aiding  the  profession. 
The  character  of  the  preparation  is  treated  elsewhere  (see 
p.  12).  Let  every  teacher  encourage  this  preparation  on 
the  part  of  all  who  contemplate  teaching,  whether  or  not 
they  have  had  the  advantage  of  it  themselves. 

Support  pedagogical  literature.  —  It  is  imperative  for 
the  teacher  to  be  conversant  with  what  is  going  on  in  the 
world,  however  good  his  previous  training  may  have  been. 
A  fertile  means  of  accomplishing  this  is  by  reading  edu- 
cational literature,  both  current  and  standard.  It  is  easy 
for  the  teacher  to  fall  into  a  rut,  to  become  fossilized.  The 
daily  routine  of  school-work,  the  constant  appeal  to  minds 
below  his  in  knowledge,  the  pressure  of  manifold  duties, 
the  depression  of  school  drudgery,  —  all  these  have  a  ten- 
dency to  make  one  neglect  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times. 


252 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


A  failure  to  do  so  only  accelerates  the  downward  move- 
ment. Aside  from  the  inspiration  and  help  gained  from 
reading  educational  literature,  the  teacher  by  supporting 
educational  papers  encourages  the  worthy  efforts  they  are 
making  to  uplift  the  cause  of  education.  The  better  sup- 
port these  papers  receive,  the  better  they  can  be  made. 
Every  subscriber  thus  assists  in  adding  to  the  usefulness 
of  these  organs,  while  he  receives  greater  benefits  himself. 
The  teacher  that  ignores  the  educational  journal  loses 
sight  of  the  progress  in  educational  affairs,  falls  out  of  line 
in  all  forward  movements,  becomes  narrow  inhisovvn  ideas 
and  methods,  and  is  likely  to  be  self-contained  and  egotis- 
tical. He  therefore  owes  it  to  himself  as  well  as  to  his 
profession  to  support  educational  literature. 

TcacJicrs'  associations.  —  The  tendency  of  the  school- 
room, where  association  is  with  young  children  of  much 
less  knowledge,  and  where  the  intellectual  contact  is  with 
immature  minds,  is  to  debase  the  powers  of  the  teacher. 
Besides  educational  literature,  a  very  important  means  of 
counteracting  these  influences  is  the  teachers'  association. 
Here  the  teacher  meets  his  equals,  if  not  his  superiors  ; 
measures  his  strength  with  the  strength  of  those  worthy 
to  meet  him,  and  here  he  stands  or  falls  according  to  his 
ability  to  cope  with  a  "foeman  worthy  of  his  steel."  Here, 
too,  he  is  without  authority,  meeting  his  equals,  and  must 
prove  the  ground  upon  which  he  stands.  It  is  sometimes 
better  to  go  down  before  superior  power  and  argument 
than  never  to  be  called  upon  to  exert  one's  self  to  the 
utmost.  It  is  through  struggle  that  ambition  is  awakened, 
strength  gained ;  and  the  victory  is  the  sweeter,  the  tri- 
umph more  glorious,  the  greater  the  obstacle  overcome. 
There  is  also  the  mutual  help  that  comes  through  com- 


DUTY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  2^3 

parison  of  methods  and  experiences,  discussion  of  ques- 
tions of  discipline,  presentation  of  new  discoveries  made, 
as  well  as  the  inspiration  of  personal  contact  with  those 
having  the  same  aims.  Hence  one  of  the  best  means  for 
the  upbuilding  of  the  teacher  is  the  teachers'  association 
or  club.  Many  a  young  man  owes  his  advancement  as  a 
teacher  chiefly  to  his  connection  with  such  organizations. 
In  a  community  where  teachers'  meetings  are  well  sus- 
tained and  efficient,  it  is  evident  that  a  healthful  educa- 
tional sentiment  obtains.  Therefore  the  teacher  who  is 
interested,  not  only  in  his  own  personal  growth,  but  also 
in  the  good  of  the  cause  of  education,  will  support  teach- 
ers' associations  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 

Professional  etiquette.  —  The  same  high  ideals  that  law- 
yers, doctors,  ministers,  and  other  professional  men  hold 
and  practise  towards  each  other  should  prevail  among  teach- 
ers. Professional  etiquette  should  prevent  one  teacher 
from  undermining  another  teacher's  reputation  or  seek- 
ing to  displace  him.  A  young  teacher  came  to  me  for 
advice  concerning  a  position  that  she  desired.  "Miss  S. 
is  thee  now,  but  I  have  influence  and  feel  sure  that 
I  can  get  the  place,"  said  she.  "Is  Miss  S.  successful 
and  well  liked?"  I  asked.  "Oh,  yes,"  was  the  reply; 
"I  think  she  is  a  good  teacher."  "Is  she  desirous  of 
leaving  ?  "  I  further  questioned.  "  I  don't  know  ;  I  sup- 
pose not,"  was  the  hesitating  reply.  "  And  she  vnW  proba- 
bly be  continued  in  her  congenial  and  successful  work  if 
you  do  not  interfere  ?  "  I  pursued.  "  Yes,  I  think  she 
will,"  was  the  answer.  "Then,"  said  I,  "my  young  friend, 
take  my  advice  and  leave  her  there.  You  cannot  afford 
to  crowd  a  teacher  out  of  her  place.  It  would  be  a  mean 
thing  to  do,  and  for  the  sake  of  your  own  future,  as  well 


254  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

as  for  the  sake  of  our  profession,  I  do  not  want  you  to 
interfere.  Never  cause  a  fellow  teacher  to  be  displaced 
on  your  account."  She  took  my  advice,  and  afterward 
secured  a  much  better  position,  which  she  held  for  years. 

Quite  different  was  the  experience  of  a  young  man,  a 
former  pupil,  who  also  came  to  me  for  advice.  He  wanted 
my  support  in  securing  a  school  at  a  neighboring  village. 
The  position  was  worth  eight  hundred  dollars,  and  the 
people  were  abundantly  able  to  pay  that  amount.  They 
had  but  one  trustee,  and  he  was  a  man  noted  for  his 
penuriousness.  The  i^resent  teacher  had  been  re-engaged 
at  the  old  salary  by  the  former  trustee,  but  unfortunately 
no  written  contract  had  been  made.  The  incumbent  trus- 
tee had  ignored  the  existing  contract,  and  offered  my 
young  friend  the  position  at  four  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars. This  was  quite  an  advance  over  what  he  had  been 
receiving  in  country  schools,  and  he  was  disposed  to  ac- 
cept. I  advised  him  very  strongly  to  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  matter ;  that  it  was  dishonorable  towards  a  fellow 
teacher,  and  unjust  to  the  profession  because  of  the  need- 
less lowering  of  the  salary  the  place  could  pay;  that  it 
showed  a  lack  of  professional  courtesy ;  that  it  was  under- 
mining a  good  man ;  that  no  good  could  come  from  such 
ignoble  work.  It  was  all  in  vain,  and,  contrary  to  my 
advice  and  without  my  help,  he  took  the  place  at  four 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars.  In  less  than  half  a  year  he  was 
ignominiously  discharged,  the  trustee  paying  the  full  year's 
salary  to  get  rid  of  him.  This  ended  the  career  as  a 
teacher  of  a  young  man  of  great  promise.  He  never 
sought  to  secure  another  school. 

Quite  a  different  spirit  was  shown  by  Professor  Verrill 
(see    page  5),    who    first  asked  the  incumbent  if  he  in- 


DUTY    OF   THE   TEACHER.  255 

tended  to  remain  before  he  would  enter  the  Hsts ;  also  by  the 
teacher  who  upon  being  invited  to  an  important  position, 
and  finding  that  the  school  board  were  treating  their  super- 
intendent unjustly,  said  to  them:  "Gentlemen,  you  are 
under  obligations  to  your  present  superintendent ;  I  believe 
he  has  a  valid  contract  with  you,  and  I  will  not  interfere. 
Under  the  circumstances,  I  do  not  care  to  consider  your 
invitation."  When  teachers  take  this  stand,  showing  re- 
spect for  each  other  and  for  their  profession — a  most  just 
and  courteous  position  to  take,  and  one  that  will  pay  in 
the  end ;  when  they  practise  the  same  professional  courte- 
sies toward  each  other  that  members  of  other  professions 
practise  (no  reputable  physician  will  take  a  case  as  long  as 
it  is  in  the  hands  of  another  physician) — better  relations 
will  be  established,  better  salaries  will  be  received,  and 
better  schools  will  result.  It  will  also  command  the  respect 
of  the  community,  add  to  the  character  and  efficiency  of 
teaching,  and  place  the  profession  on  a  basis  commensurate 
with  the  labor,  intelligence,  ability,  and  devotion  involved. 

Often  a  slight  misunderstanding  between  teacher  and 
school  board  would  be  removed  if  there  were  no  outside 
interference.  But  if  other  teachers,  or  agents  of  teachers' 
bureaus,  widen  the  breach,  it  may  result  in  the  severing  of 
relations  that  have  been  alike  profitable  and  pleasant  to 
both  parties. 

6.  To  His  Successor.  —  When  a  teacher  has  decided  to 
leave  a  school,  and  another  has  been  appointed  in  his  stead, 
he  can  do  a  great  deal  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  good  recep- 
tion of  his  successor,  by  both  pupils  and  patrons.  Profes- 
sional etiquette  would  require  him  to  do  this,  while  his  love 
for  the  pupils  from  whom  he  is  to  part,  and  whose  continued 


-256  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

progress  he  desires,  would  lead  him  to  wish  success  for  the 
one  who  is  to  take  his  place.  A  kindly  word  spoken  will 
do  much  to  win  a  welcome  and  open  the  way  for  the 
stranger  to  the  hearts  of  the  children.  Even  weaknesses 
that  may  be  known  of  work  elsewhere  should  not  be  pub- 
lished. It  does  not  follow  that  failure  in  one  place  will  be 
repeated  in  a  new  field.  Good  teachers  sometimes  fail 
under  certain  conditions,  and  a  change  of  environment 
may  afford  opportunity  to  develop  strength  and  prove 
ability  to  win  success.  At  least  let  no  word  be  spoken 
that  shall  hinder  him  from  achieving  success  in  the  school 
and  with  pupils  that  have  become  dear.  The  same  cour- 
tesy also  is  due  to  the  predecessor.  A  teacher  has  no 
right  to  disparage  the  work  done  by  a  former  one.  No 
permanent  advantage  will  come  to  a  teacher  who  tries  to 
build  a  reputation  on  the  faults  or  w^eaknesses  of  others. 
Their  mistakes  should  be  covered  with  a  mantle  of  charity, 
and  effort  made  quietly  to  correct  them  when  discovered. 

A  copy  of  the  daily  program,  and  such  records  as  will 
aid  in  obtaining  a  mastery  of  the  minutias  of  his  new  duties, 
should  be  left  for  the  new  teacher.  In  a  word,  here  is  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  practise  the  spirit  of  the  Golden 
Rule :  "  Therefore  all  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that 
men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them."  This 
should  be  the  professional  attitude  of  the  teacher  to  his 
predecessor  and  to  his  successor. 

7.  To  Himself.  —  Last  of  all,  there  are  important  duties 
that  the  teacher  owes  to  himself.  We  have  seen  that  the 
teacher's  life  is  a  life  of  self-sacrifice,  and  no  one  unwilling 
to  give  himseK  for  others  should  become  a  teacher.  But 
this  does  not  mean  that  he  is  not  to  take  proper  care  of  his 


dutV  of  the  teacher.  257 

health,  conserve  his  strength,  and  seek  to  bring  the  best 
that  the  world  offers  into  his  own  life  ;  for  in  the  posses- 
sion of  these  he  will  be  equipped  better  to  serve  others 
while  he  secures  blessings  to  himself. 

The  ieachet^s  health.  —  First  of  all  he  must  care  for 
his  health.  Elsewhere  we  have  remarked  concerning  the 
physical  requirements  of  those  who  enter  the  profession. 
Here  we  shall  consider  the  necessity  of  preserving  the 
health  while  engaged  in  teaching.  By  securing  a  suitable 
home,  by  proper  dress,  by  taking  recreation,  by  guarding 
against  disease,  the  teacher  must  keep  his  body,  the  "  tem- 
ple of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in  perfect  order.  Only  by  doing 
this  can  he  possess  the  cheerful  spirit  that  makes  the 
schoolroom  a  joy  and  a  delight.  How  often  the  bad  order 
of  a  day  can  be  traced  to  a  teacher's  headache  or  to  his  bad 
digestion  !  Everything  goes  wrong,  because  eveiything  is 
wrong  with  the  teacher's  health.  There  is  much  in  the 
close  confinement,  the  foul  air,  the  deadly  routine  of  the 
schoolroom,  that  tends  to  sap  the  vitality  of  the  strongest 
body.  These  influences  must  be  counteracted  by  thor- 
oughly reactionary  means  when  out  of  school.  Hence  the 
necessity  for  the  open  air,  plenty  of  exercise,  and  recrea- 
tion. Let  the  schoolroom,  its  atmosphere  and  influence, 
be  wholly  left  behind  when  the  school  day  is  over,  and  let 
the  teacher  abandon  himself  to  complete  relaxation.  Some 
time  must  be  given  to  study  and  preparation  for  the  next 
day,  but  let  that  be  at  some  fixed  hour  after  the  body  has 
been  reinvigorated.  The  duties  of  the  morrow  must  not 
hang  like  a  nightmare  over  the  teacher  during  every  wak- 
ing hour.  There  are  times  when  he  must  "  take  no 
thought  for  the  morrow." 

When   out   of  school  the  teacher   should  throw  off  the 


258  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

pedagogue.  He  must  not  "talk  school,"  "think  school," 
or  "act  school."  There  is  no  reason  why  the  mark  of  the 
school-teacher  should  be  upon  a  person  after  a  few  years  in 
the  schoolroom  ;  nor  does  this  mark  add  to  the  dignity  of 
the  profession  or  of  the  individual  who  bears  it.  It  does 
not  win  respect  for  his  vocation,  and  sometimes  it  becomes 
offensive.  The  air  of  authority,  the  self-assertiveness,  the 
precision,  the  disposition  to  set  the  world  right,  which  may 
be  necessary  and  natural  in  the  schoolroom,  has  no  place  in 
the  outside  world.  "  Can't  you  make  those  boys  behave 
themselves  .-" "  was  asked  of  a  teacher  at  a  public  gathering. 
"  I  suppose  so,"  he  replied,  "  but  why  should  I  ?  "  "  Why, 
you're  their  teacher,"  said  the  other  in  astonishment.  "  No, 
I  am  not  their  teacher.  I  am  merely  a  member  of  this 
party,  bound  to  enjoy  myself  like  the  rest,  and  with  the 
same  freedom.  I  am  not  on  police  duty,  and  have  no  more 
authority  over  those  boys  here  than  you  have,  and  you 
may  be  sure  I  shall  not  attempt  to  use  authority  that  I  do 
not  possess,"  was  the  quiet  reply.  A  citizen  with  other 
citizens,  a  man  with  other  men,  no  more,  no  less,  should  be 
the  attitude  of  the  teacher  ;  and  any  police  duty  that  he  may 
do  outside  of  the  school  should  be  that  which  any  man  might 
do  under  extraordinary  circumstances.  Then  the  hard 
lines  that  so  often  appear  on  the  countenance,  the  "bossy  " 
manner,  the  hypercritical  disposition,  will  characterize  the 
teacher  no  more  than  they  characterize  any  other  person. 

Good  food,  proper  clothing,  plenty  of  outdoor  exercise, 
freedom  from  restraint,  good  society,  will  not  only  preserve 
the  health  of  the  teacher,  but  will  fill  him  with  sunshine 
when  he  comes  to  his  school,  give  him  soundness  of  mind 
as  well  as  of  body,  implant  in  him  beauty  of  spirit  that 
makes  him  everywhere  welcome,  and  fills  life  for  him  with 


DUTY    OF   THE    TEACHER.  259 

gladness  and  joy.     It  certainly  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher 
to  cultivate  these  qualities. 

The  teacher  s  groivtJi.  —  It  is  not  sufficient  to  be  a 
graduate  of  a  normal  school  or  college,  to  hold  a  first-grade 
certificate,  or  to  stand  high  in  the  profession  of  teaching. 
The  teacher  must  grow,  and  this  advancement  must  be 
along  lines  both  professional  and  general.  There  must 
be  a  knowledge  of  educational  movements  and  a  familiarity 
with  the  progress  in  educational  thought  and  research. 
To  obtain  this,  we  have  seen  that  pedagogical  literature 
must  be  read,  contact  with  others  in  teachers'  meetings 
sought,  and  the  work  of  other  teachers  and  schools  studied. 
Rapid  strides  are  being  made  in  all  departments  of  educa- 
tional enterprise,  and  the  teacher  who  keeps  pace  with  the 
times  is  obliged  to  be  instant  in  season  and  out  of  season. 
This  does  not  mean  that  one  must  run  after  every  "fad," 
or  ride  a  hobby.  It  does  mean,  however,  that  new  ideas  and 
schemes  will  be  examined  with  a  view  to  adopt  those  that 
are  sound,  and  that  the  teacher  will  hold  himself  open 
to  conviction.  Who  shall  say  what  are  "fads  "  and  what 
are  sound  theories  without  examination  and  experiment  "i 
Drawing,  school  music,  manual  training,  the  kindergarten, 
object-teaching,  have  all  been  denominated  "fads."  The 
privilege  of  experiment  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
features  of  the  American  schools,  and  its  wise  use  is  a 
guarantee  against  conservatism  and  stagnation.  Through 
experiment  and  investigation  new  methods  are  discovered 
and  proved,  new  theories  advanced,  mooted  questions 
solved,  pedagogical  practice  tested,  and  educational  vitality 
preserved.  The  zeal  with  which  teachers  take  up  new  ideas 
and  test  them  is  one  of  the  most  hopeful  features  of  edu. 
cational  work.     It  is  true  that   much  that  is  worthless  is 


Cl6o  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

promulgated,  but  some  good  is  discovered,  and  this  is 
preserved  while  the  worthless  is  soon  discarded.  Activity 
is  better  than  stagnation  ;  groping  for  the  truth  is  better 
than  self-satisfied  indifference ;  life  is  better  than  death. 
And  so  let  the  teacher  hold  himself  ready  for  the  truth 
wherever  discovered,  and  let  him  also  be  an  earnest 
searcher  and  investigator  in  his  own  professional  field. 

But  no  teacher  should  confine  his  growth  to  purely  pro- 
fessional lines.  He  must  also  know  what  is  going  on  in  the 
world  of  literature,  science,  art,  history,  politics,  and  religion. 
Every  teacher  should  follow  a  course  of  reading  outside 
of  the  field  of  pedagogy.  This  will  help  him  to  escape 
the  pedantic  spirit  and  manner  so  often  characteristic  of 
the  teacher  and  which  I  have  already  considered.  It  will 
help  him  to  be  a  man  among  men,  to  be  genial  andint-^^rest- 
ing  in  society,  and  to  view  life  from  a  broader  stanapoint. 
Besides  this,  it  will  add  to  his  efficiency  in  the  school- 
room, and  enable  him  to  bring  to  his  pupils  stores  of 
knowledge  and  riches  not  called  for  in  the  curriculum  nor 
specified  in  the  text-books,  but  which  are  more  effective 
than  either  in  opening  to  the  children's  minds  the  great 
things  of  life. 

Thus,  while  the  teacher  grows  into  nobler  proportions 
as  a  man  endowed  by  God  ;  while  he  improves  himself 
and  grows  more  and  more  into  the  image  of  his  Maker  ; 
while  he  enjoys  the  blessings  of  quickened  intelligence, 
accum.ulated  knowledge,  and  increased  power  in  his  own 
personal  life,  —  he  will  also  be  an  inspiration  to  his  pupils 
to  lead  them  into  broader  fields  and  nobler  life.  Then 
will  he  fulfil  the  noblest  of  all  missions  to  which  man  is 
called,  that  of  the  teacher. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

THE   MUTUAL   RELATIONS    OF    SUPERINTENDENT, 
PRINCIPAL,   AND    TEACHER. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  discuss  the  educational  qualifica- 
tions of  either  the  superintendent  or  the  principal,  the 
qualifications  of  the  teacher  having  already  been  treated  in 
Chapters  I.  and  II.  It  may  be  said  in  general  that  both 
of  these  officers  have  usually  begim  their  educational  work 
as  teachers  and  have  advanced  to  their  more  responsible 
positions  after  years  of  successful  experience.  It  is  also 
likely  that  their  promotion  has  been  due  to  their  remark- 
able efficiency  as  teachers.  When  such  is  the  case,  it  is  a 
most  happy  situation,  for  they  will  understand  the  multi- 
farious duties  of  their  own  office,  and  furthermore  they 
will  be  in  closer  sympathy  with  the  teachers  under  them 
from  having  experienced  like  trials  and  difficulties.  The 
superintendent  who  has  not  passed  through  this  school  of 
experience  is  sadly  handicapped.  He  is  likely  to  be  a 
mere  theorist,  whose  schemes  are  not  always  based  upon 
sound  practice. 

I.  The  Superintendent. — There  are  two  kinds  of  duties 
expected  of  the  school  superintendent,  namely,  executive 
acts  and  supervisory  work.    Let  us  consider  these  separately. 

I .  Executive  Duties.  —  The  superintendent  must  write 
reports,  form  plans,  make  out  courses  of  study,  act  as 
a  representative    of    the  board    of    education,  hear  com- 

261 


262  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

plaints  and  suggestions  from  the  parents,  represent  the 
teachers,  and  assume  the  educational  leadership  of  the 
community.  To  be  able  to  do  these  duties  requires  not 
only  broad  scholarship,  tact,  knowledge  of  men,  pedagogical 
knowledge  and  skill,  but  also  good  executive  ability.  The 
school  superintendent  must  be  a  man  in  whom  the  school 
board,  the  teachers,  and  the  community  have  confidence. 
He  must  be  resourceful,  energetic,  and  enthusiastic  on  the 
one  hand,  and  yet  conservative,  judicial,  far-seeing,  and 
wise  on  the  other  hand.  This  is  the  business  side  of  his 
qualifications  and  his  duty.  There  is  a  tendency  in  some 
cities  to  separate  the  business  from  the  purely  educational 
work,  the  supervisory  ;  that  is,  to  have  a  business  director 
to  attend  to  many  of  the  above  duties,  and  a  supervisor 
for  the  pedagogical  work.  This  may  be  done  in  large  cities 
that  can  afford  the  double  expense,  and  it  is  a  wise  and 
economical  provision,  but  it  can  hardly  become  general  in 
smaller  towns.  Therefore  we  must  consider  a  superinten- 
dent who  combines  the  qualities  of  an  executive  and  those 
of  an  educational  expert. 

The  successful  general  does  not  lead  his  army  into 
action,  but  he  plans  the  battle,  selects  his  division  leaders, 
and  directs  the  whole  fight.  The  great  leader  is  he  that  is 
able  to  marshal  all  his  forces  under  the  command  of  sub- 
ordinates wisely  chosen,  each  to  perform,  with  the  forces 
placed  at  his  disposal,  the  duty  that  is  assigned  to  him. 
This  principle  is  true  of  every  great  enterprise  of  war  or 
peace,  of  commercial,  philanthropic,  or  educational  endeavor. 
Hence  the  wise  superintendent  will  unite,  for  the  attain- 
ment of  his  purposes,  all  available  forces  —  the  board  of 
education  for  the  business  side,  and  the  teachers  for  the 
educational  work. 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,   AND   TEACHER.       263 

Upon  him  jointly  with  the  school  board  will  fall  the  duty 
of  selecting  the  teachers.  This  duty  should  not  devolve 
upon  either  of  these  agencies  alone.  The  members  of  the 
school  board  are  not  educational  experts,  are  not  frequently 
in  the  schools,  and  may  not  be  free  from  local  prejudices  for 
or  against  the  teachers.  Through  his  examinations,  by  his 
constant  intercourse  with  the  teachers  and  observation  of 
their  influence  and  work,  and  by  his  freedom  from  bias, 
the  superintendent  is  certainly  better  informed  as  to  which 
of  the  old  teachers  should  be  retained  or  reappointed.  By 
his  knowledge  of  men,  by  his  professional  training,  by  his 
acquaintance  with  the  standards  of  teaching,  he  is  better 
fitted  to  choose  new  teachers  than  the  school  board  is.  His 
recommendations,  therefore,  should  carry  great  weight 
with  the  school  board  in  making  appointments.  Through 
frequent  reports  during  the  year  as  to  cases  of  inefficiency 
among  the  teachers,  the  superintendent  can  keep  the  board 
well  informed,  so  that  they  can  act  intelligently  when  the 
time  of  appointment  comes.  Reappointment  every  year 
should  not  be  practised  except  in  case  of  teachers  who  are 
on  probation.  With  a  suitable  probation  of  perhaps  three 
years  the  ranks  of  permanent  teachers  will  be  suitably 
guarded. 

In  the  matter  of  the  course  of  study  the  aid  of  the 
teachers  should  be  invoked.  While  the  superintendent 
in  his  view  of  the  whole  field,  and  with  his  broad  knowledge 
as  an  educational  expert,  must  necessarily  provide  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  the  course,  the  details  of  it  should  be  worked 
out  by  the  teachers.  It  should  be  discussed  in  teachers' 
meetings  and  submitted  to  the  experiment  of  the  classroom 
before  final  adoption.  The  superintendent  views  it  as  a 
whole,  while  the  teachers  exaniine  and  test  its  parts  in  their 


264  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

individual  work.  By  this  means  an  educational  instrument 
may  be  produced  that  is  sound  as  a  whole  and  in  perfect 
harmony  as  to  its  parts.  A  course  of  study  that  is  prepared 
by  the  superintendent  in  his  office  and  adopted  by  the 
school  board  without  the  co-operation  of  the  class  teachers 
will  be  likely  to  awaken  the  antagonism  of  the  latter.  The 
teachers  also  have  an  mterest  in  the  successful  training  of 
their  pupils,  a  closer  and  more  direct  interest  than  the 
superintendent  can  possibly  have.  They,  too,  are  educa- 
tors whose  opinions  are  worth  having  because  of  their 
personal  contact  with  the  children,  and  because  upon  them 
is  incumbent  the  duty  of  carrying  out  the  course.  The 
wise  superintendent  wiU  utilize  all  of  the  forces  at  his 
command  for  the  best  good  of  the  schools  under  his  direc- 
tion, and  will  not  attempt  alone  to  carry  burdens  that  others 
can  assist  him  in  carrying. 

2.  The  Siiperititendent  as  a  Supervisor.  —  So  long  as 
the  executive  and  the  supervising  work  of  the  superinten- 
dent devolve  upon  one  man,  the  duties  of  supervision  should 
be  held  as  of  the  greater  importance.  It  is  not  my  pur- 
pose to  mark  out  definitely  the  functions  of  these  two 
departments,  should  two  officers  be  employed.  In  general, 
one  wiU  perform  the  external,  executive  duties,  and  the 
other  the  internal,  the  purely  educational  work.  The  course 
of  study,  the  relationship  with  the  teachers,  conferences 
with  parents,  representing  the  schools  at  educational  meet- 
ings, naturally  belong  to  the  field  of  supervision.  A  super- 
intendent who  confines  his  activity  to  his  office,  who  fails  to 
keep  in  touch  with  the  actual  work  of  the  schoolroom  by 
frequent  visits,  will  lose  sight  of  his  most  important  func- 
tion. He  will  be  out  of  sympathy  with  his  teachers,  with  his 
pupils,  and  with  genuine  and  practical  educational  activities. 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND   TEACHER.       26^ 

a.  His  visits  to  the  schools.  —  The  superintendent  visits 
a  school  not  as  a  stranger  or  guest,  but  as  a  part  of  the 
institution.  His  visits  should  not  be  looked  forward  to 
with  dread  by  either  teacher  or  pupils.  They  should 
understand  that  he  comes  as  a  friend  who  sincerely  desires 
to  do  all  parties  good,  and  not  as  a  critic  who  is  look- 
ing for  defects.  If  he  questions  the  classes,  it  will  not  be 
for  the  sake  of  exposing  their  ignorance,  but  to  instruct, 
to  help,  to  uncover  some  phase  of  the  subject  that  may 
have  escaped  the  teacher.  I  have  brought  out  elsewhere 
(p.  179)  that  the  purpose  of  the  recitation  is  not  to  show 
how  little  the  pupils  know,  but  to  discover  how  much  they 
have  learned  and  to  teach  them  something  new.  Weak- 
nesses will  appear,  it  is  true,  and  it  will  be  found  that  many 
things  have  not  yet  been  mastered  by  all  of  the  class. 
This  will  be  the  case  also  with  the  best  and  most  experi- 
enced teachers  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances. 
Nevertheless,  emphasis  must  be  laid  upon  the  positive 
rather  than  the  negative  side,  upon  finding  out  what  the 
pupils  know  rather  than  what  they  do  not  know.  It  is 
evident,  of  course,  that  what  the  pupils  do  not  know  will 
be  thus  exposed,  and  attention  must  be  directed  to  the  cor- 
rection of  defects. 

If  the  superintendent  questions  the  class,  he  should  bear 
in  mind  the  above  principle.  He  should  encourage  and 
stimulate  rather  than  frighten  and  discourage.  He  should 
suggest  new  interests,  fortify  the  work  already  done,  and 
present  the  subject  in  a  new  light  to  the  class.  This  will 
be  done,  not  to  prove  that  the  teacher  has  failed,  but  rather 
to  strengthen  her  influence  with  the  class.  He  will  not 
fail  to  praise  the  good  work.  Should  he  discover  •  poor 
work  that  calls  for  criticism,  his  voice  will  be  silent  upon 


266  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

this  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils.  The  superintendent  has 
no  right  to  humihate  a  teacher  by  reprimanding  her  or 
exposing  her  weaknesses  before  the  pupils.  Nor  will  he 
make  notes  in  his  private  note-book  during  his  stay  in  a 
room.  I  have  known  men  to  visit  a  class,  sit  silent  as  a 
sphinx,  laboriously  jot  down  what  they  witness,  and  then 
leave  the  room  without  a  word  to  any  one.  Teacher  and 
pupils  think  of  him  merely  as  a  critic,  and  they  wonder  what 
terrible  things  he  has  put  down  against  them  in  that  book. 
Consequently  they  dread  to  see  him  appear.  Under  such 
circumstances,  neither  teacher  nor  pupils  can  be  at  their 
best ;  nor  can  they  do  themselves  justice.  If  notes  of  a 
visit  are  to  be  made  for  future  reference,  let  them  be 
^|ju"itten  after  leaving  the  room.  They  should  be  of  the 
most  private  character,  intended  for  the  eye  of  the  super- 
intendent alone.  They  will  be  valuable  to  him  in  compar- 
ing the  work  of  a  class  from  time  to  time.  Before  again 
visiting  that  class  he  should  review  his  notes  in  order  to 
refresh  his  memory  in  regard  to  the  work  for  the  purpose 
of  comparison. 

I  have  said  that  the  teacher  should  not  be  criticised 
in  the  presence  of  her  class.  If,  however,  her  work  is 
unsatisfactory,  she  should  be  invited  to  a  private  confer- 
ence at  which  the  defects  should  be  faithfully  pointed 
out.  The  attitude  of  the  superintendent  should  not  be 
that  of  a  critic,  but  of  a  friend  who  is  seeking  to  extend 
a  helping  hand.  Kindly,  but  firmly  and  plainly,  the 
wrong  method,  the  weak  discipline,  the  lack  of  enthu- 
siasm, the  failure  to  grasp  the  essentials  of  a  subject, 
the  want  of  sympathy,  or  whatever  the  defect,  should  be 
pointed  out.  While  such  criticism  may  bring  tears,  if 
given  in  the  right  spirit  it  will  secure  the  desired  result, 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND   TEACHER.       267 

provided    the   teacher    does   not    lack    the    capabiUty    of 
success. 

The  superintendent  who  points  out  the  evil  fails  in  his  duty 
if  he  does  not  suggest  a  remedy  and  endeavor  to  assist  the 
teacher  in  applying  it.  He  tears  down,  but  does  not  con- 
struct anything  upon  the  ruins.  Here  is  manifest  the  advan- 
tage that  one  possesses  who  himself  has  had  experience  in 
a  like  kind  of  work.  Having  met  similar  difficulties,  he  is 
able  to  assist  others  in  overcoming  theirs.  He  is  fertile  in 
devices  and  suggestions,  from  the  application  of  which  the 
teacher  may  be  able  to  correct  her  errors. 

An  old  county  superintendent  told  me  the  follow- 
ing bit  of  experience :  "  One  day,"  said  he,  •'  I  visited^ 
a  country  school  in  charge  of  a  young  lady  who  hjj^ 
recently  joined  my  teaching  force,  and  who  was  ".a 
stranger  to  me.  I  spent  the  forenoon  with  her,  and  as  I^^ 
was  about  to  leave,  she  said  to  me,  •  Mr.  M.,  have  you 
any  suggestions  to  make.-"  *Yes,'  I  replied,  Met  me 
suggest  that  when  you  desire  your  pupils  to  do  something 
ask  them,  and  do  not  coimnand  them  to  do  it.  You  order 
your  boys  to  do  this  or  that,  and  they  sullenly  comply 
because  they  fear  you.  The  spirit  of  your  school  will  be 
very  much  improved  if  you  will  act  upon  this  advice.' 
She  was  very  angry  with  me,  evidently  thinking  that  I 
did  not  understand  boys,  especially  such  as  she  had  to 
deal  with.  I  was  not  sure  how  matters  would  turn  out. 
This  teacher  was  a  good  instructor,  but  there  was  a  total 
lack  of  sympathy  between  her  and  her  pupils.  There- 
fore I  could  not  call  her  work  a  success.  Some  months 
later  I  again  visited  that  school.  The  teacher  met  me  at 
the  door  and  said,  *  Mr.  M.,  I  want  to  thank  you  for  the 
advice  you  gave  me  on  your  former  visit.     I  was  provoked 


268  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

at  your  suggestion  and  had  no  idea  of  carrying  it  out. 
But  upon  reflection  I  concluded  to  try  it,  and  it  has  worked 
like  a  charm.'  My  second  visit  to  the  school  was  a  delight, 
and  I  found  the  whole  atmosphere  of  the  school  changed." 
This  wise  old  teacher  discovered  the  fault,  and  was  able  to 
suggest  a  remedy.  Every  superintendent  should  possess 
the  disposition  and  the  knowledge  whereby  he  can  aid 
those  whom  he  is  obliged  to  criticise. 

There  are  many  things  that  the  supervising  officer  should 
observ^e  in  visiting  a  schoolroom.  The  discipline,  the  gen- 
eral order,  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  and  the  pupils,  the 
care  of  school  property,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, and  the  progress  in  the  lessons,  should  all  be  taken 
«to  account.  He  should  not  interfere  with  the  discipline, 
that  would  weaken  the  teacher  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils. 
If  there  has  been  insubordination,  such  as  to  call  for  his 
presence  in  the  classroom  with  the  distinct  purpose  of 
discipline,  let  that  be  understood,  and  let  him  administer 
such  warning  and  such  punishment  as  the  case  may 
demand.  Even  then  he  should  not  fail  to  impress  upon 
the  children  that  the  teacher  is  in  command,  and  that  he 
proposes  to  support  her  in  the  maintenance  of  good  order. 
It  should  be  rarely  necessary  for  a  superintendent  to 
interfere  in  this  way  in  preserving  order.  It  is  incumbent 
upon  each  teacher  to  hold  her  class  in  check,  and  if  she 
ultimately  is  incapable  of  doing  this,  a  change  will  have  to 
be  made.  The  details  of  daily  discipline  must  be  carried 
out  by  the  grade  teacher,  though  the  pupils  should  under- 
stand that  she  has  the  support  and  confidence  of  her 
superintendent. 

Should  an  offence  be  committed  in  the  presence  of  the 
superintendent,  it  is  generally   better   that  the  teacher  in 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND   TEACHER.       269 

charge  should  deal  with  it.  In  my  first  school  in  a 
country  village  I  received  a  visit  one  day  from  the  county 
superintendent.  He  saw  a  boy  commit  some  offence, 
caught  hold  of  the  culprit,  and  proceeded  to  punish  him. 
The  boy  resisted,  and  a  most  painful  scene  ensued.  Now, 
I  had  never  had  serious  trouble  with  this  boy,  and  believe 
that  had  this  matter  been  left  to  me  but  little  trouble 
would  have  been  occasioned.  The  boy  felt  that  the 
superintendent  was  interfering  beyond  his  prerogative,  and 
therefore  resented  the  punishment.  Let  the  teacher  be 
held  responsible  for  the  order  of  the  room,  and  if  it  is 
unsatisfactory  the  superintendent  should  call  him  to 
account. 

While  the  violation  of  general  principles  of  teaching 
may  call  for  criticism,  the  widest  latitude  of  individual 
method  and  practice  should  be  allowed  the  teacher.  The 
main  thing  is  that  the  pupils  shall  progress  in  their  studies, 
that  the  discipline  shall  be  wholesome,  and  that  the  spirit 
of  the  school  shall  be  uplifting,  healthful,  and  enthusiastic. 
If  the  teacher  secures  these  results,  the  method  of  proced- 
ure is  secondary,  and  the  superintendent  should  not  inter- 
fere unless  the  means  employed  are  vitally  wrong,  so  that  the 
results  will  not  be  permanent.  Let  every  teacher  have  the 
largest  possible  liberty  in  teaching  and  in  class  management. 
Encourage  her  to  think  and  act  for  herself,  to  be  original, 
and  let  no  effort  be  made  to  mould  all  teachers  according 
to  one  pattern.  The  teacher  who  servilely  tries  to  imitate 
some  one  else,  no  matter  how  eminent  the  ideal,  will  ulti- 
mately fail.  "  Mr.  A,  has  succeeded  admirably  in  his  way," 
said  a  young  man  who  had  just  been  appointed  to  a  posi- 
tion. "  I  cannot  follow  in  his  footsteps,  but  I  can  succeed 
in  my  own  way."     And  he  has  proved  his  ability  to  fulfil 


2.70 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


expectations  by  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century's  service  in 
that  school.  Give  the  teacher  the  greatest  possible  free- 
dom, encourage  him  to  think  and  act  for  himself,  and  let 
him  feel  that  he  also,  though  placed  in  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion, may  assume  responsibility  in  the  education  of  chil- 
dren. The  superintendent  who  insists  upon  his  teachers 
following  his  stereotyped  methods  destroys  enthusiasm, 
discourages  indi\idual  improvement,  and  reduces  his 
schools  to  a  machine-like  condition. 

b.  Ediicatio7ial  leadership.  —  By  his  training,  his  expe- 
rience, his  understanding  of  the  educational  forces,  his 
general  view  of  the  whole  field,  and  by  virtue  of  his  posi- 
tion, the  superintendent  is  the  constituted  leader.  As 
such,  his  principals  and  teachers  should  give  him  their 
respect  and  their  hearty  and  loyal  support.  By  means  of 
teachers'  meetings,  by  talks  to  the  whole  body  of  his 
assistants,  and  by  private  advice  to  individual  teachers,  he 
should  establish  most  cordial  relations.  He  should  be  able 
to  inspire  his  whole  corps  of  teachers  with  high  ideals  be- 
cause he  possesses  high  ideals  himself.  A  principal  once 
remarked  :  "  I  want  my  school  to  be  a  unit  from  the  kin- 
dergarten to  the  end  of  the  high  school,  to  have  the  same 
purpose  throughout.  Therefore  I  shall  secure  all  of  my 
teachers  hereafter  from  one  normal  school."  I  said  to 
him,  that  if  he  discharged  every  teacher  in  his  school  and 
engaged  his  whole  corps  from  a  single  class  of  that  or  any 
other  normal  school,  it  would  not  insure  the  unity  he 
sought ;  that  if  he  would  obtain  the  end  desired,  he  must 
be  the  leader  who  gave  the  direction,  the  inspiration,  the 
continuity  to  the  work.  I  further  added,  that  a  better  plan 
would  be  to  select  the  best  teachers  he  could  get  from 
many  sources,   thereby  taking  advantage    of   the  newest 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND   TEACHER.       27  I 

educational  movements  and  ideas  in  different  schools. 
With  such  teachers,  possessing  a  theory  of  education,  and 
with  the  ability  himself  to  lead,  he  would  have  a  right  to 
expect  the  educational  unity  sought.  After  reflection  he 
admitted  the  soundness  of  the  advice  given,  and  has  since 
acted  according  to  it  with  excellent  results.  The  superin- 
tendent must  possess  the  qualities  of  leadership.  Without 
these  qualities  success  cannot  be  expected. 

c.  Teachers'  meetings.  —  The  superintendent  should  call 
his  teachers  together  regularly  for  the  purpose  of  consider- 
ing the  welfare  of  the  schools.  In  large  systems  these 
meetings  will  necessarily  be  limited  to  different  classes  of 
the  teaching  force  —  the  associate  superintendents,  the 
principals,  the  teachers  of  various  grades  and  departments. 
The  purpose  of  these  meetings  will  vary  according  to  the 
work  of  those  called  together.  Teachers'  meetings  afford 
the  superintendent  opportunity  to  give  general  directions, 
to  present  policies,  to  discuss  discipline,  and  to  unify  the 
whole  work.  An  occasional  lecture  on  some  broad  educa- 
tional question  will  serve  to  keep  the  teachers  in  touch 
with  their  profession. 

Sectional  meetings  should  be  held  frequently  for  the 
purpose  of  considering  classroom  work,  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, disciphne,  etc.  Model  lessons  should  be  presented, 
with  children  if  practicable,  which  should  be  criticised  and 
discussed.  Not  only  the  teachers  of  a  given  grade  should 
be  present,  but  those  of  the  immediately  higher  and  lower 
grades  as  well,  in  order  that  the  work  of  the  different 
grades  may  be  made  to  articulate.  It  is  a  good  thing  for 
a  teacher  to  study  work  other  than  his  own.  Such  meet- 
ings can  be  made  instructive  and  helpful  to  all  concerned, 
and  they  should  give  vitality,  inspiration,  and  harmony  to 
the  whole  teachine;  force. 


272 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Teachers'  meetings  should  be  so  conducted  that  they 
will  not  be  regarded  as  a  bore,  as  an  evil  incident  to  the 
teacher's  life  from  which  all  would  gladly  escape.  In  the 
ftrst  place,  they  must  offer  something  that  the  teachers 
want.  When  teachers  find  that  they  can  obtain  help  in 
their  work,  they  will  gladly  devote  an  hour  a  week  or  a 
fortnight  to  such  an  exercise.  The  great  mass  of  public- 
school  teachers  are  earnest,  enthusiastic,  and  eager  to 
improve. 

In  the  second  place,  there  should  be  the  utmost  freedom 
in  these  meetings.  Each  teacher  should  feel  that  his  opin- 
ions will  receive  a  hearing,  and  that  he  is  invited  to  express 
himself  freely.  If  only  a  few  take  part,  and  these  always 
the  same  individuals,  the  meetings  will  become  dull.  Su- 
perintendent, principal,  and  teacher  should  all  stand  on  the 
same  plane  on  the  floor  of  the  teachers'  meetings,  so  far  as 
discussion  is  concerned.  The  exercise  of  the  courtesy 
due  to  equals  should  also  be  practised,  and  the  youngest 
teacher,  as  well  as  the  oldest,  should  feel  that  his  voice 
will  be  heard  whenever  he  has  anything  to  say. 

Third,  they  should  not  be  too  long.  In  general,  an 
hour  is  long  enough,  unless  something  should  arise  that  is 
of  peculiar  interest.  Too  lengthy  meetings  destroy  the 
good  effect  sought,  and  make  the  teachers  dread  their  recur- 
rence. Especially  true  is  this  if  the  meetings  are  held  at 
the  close  of  the  school  day,  when  all  are  already  weary 
with  the  arduous  duties  of  the  day. 

Fourth,  they  should  be  conducted  in  a  kindly  and  sym. 
pathetic  spirit.  There  will  be  differences  of  opinion,  but 
there  need  be  no  acrimonious  criticism.  The  expression 
of  different  views  will  have  a  tendency  to  throw  light  upor 
the  subjects  discussed. 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND    TEACHER.       273 

Fifth,  they  should  be  wide  awake  and  enthusiastic. 
When  a  subject  is  exhausted,  it  is  better  to  close  the  meet- 
ing than  to  drag  out  any  allotted  time.  As  in  the  recita- 
tion with  children,  when  interest  flags,  it  is  time  to  close. 

Finally,  the  teachers  must  feel  that  the  superintendent 
in  the  conduct  of  these  meetings  is  honestly  trying  to  be 
of  service  to  them,  that  he  is  studying  school  problems 
with  them,  that  he  is  full  of  sympathy  for  them,  and  that 
he  has  a  due  appreciation  of  the  arduous  duties  committed 
to  them. 

d.  Reports  from  teachers.  —  Many  of  the  details  of  the 
reports  which  the  superintendent  is  required  to  make  will  be 
obtained  from  the  teachers.  He  will  also  require  reports 
from  them  to  aid  him  in  the  work  of  supervising.  The 
superintendent  should  not  forget  that  he  is  dealing  with 
men  and  women  who  are  eager  to  perform  their  duty,  and 
who  need  no  system  of  espionage  over  them.  His  visits  to 
their  schools,  if  made  in  the  right  spirit,  will  be  welcomed, 
and  the  reports  he  requires,  if  reasonable,  will  be  willingly 
furnished.  Too  frequent  reports,  such  as  might  be  neces- 
sary with  children,  should  not  be  demanded.  Teachers 
are  overburdened  with  school  duties  and  details  which  they 
cannot  escape,  such  as  correcting  papers,  reading  test  ex- 
ercises, examining  written  work,  etc.  No  needless  burden 
should  be  added  by  the  superintendent.  And  yet  such  in- 
formation as  may  be  necessary  to  a  full  understanding  of 
the  progress  of  the  schools  and  of  the  work  of  the  teachers 
may  be  asked  of  them.  The  information  required  will 
differ  from  time  to  time,  as  the  superintendent  may  be 
studying  different  phases  of  education,  seeking  to  correct 
an  evil,  trying  experiments,  making  out  a  course  of  study, 
or    preparing   his    annual    report.     Reasonable    requests 


274 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


should  be  cheerfully  and  promptly  met  by  the  teachers, 
who  should  enter  heartily  mto  the  measures  that  the 
superintendent  proposes  for  the  betterment  of  the  schools 
and  the  promotion  of  the  cause  of  education.  If  teachers 
cannot  accede  to  his  reasonable  requirements,  and  will  not 
follow  his  leadership,  they  should  resign. 

e.  Relation  to  the  parents.  —  In  his  supervisory  work 
the  superintendent  will  frequently  come  in  contact  with 
the  parents.  Parents  should  be  encouraged  to  watch  the 
progress  of  their  children,  and  all  the  officers  of  the  school 
should  stand  ready,  fully  and  patiently  to  explain  its  pur- 
poses to  them.  Some  parents  are  disposed  to  find  fault 
with  modern  teaching  because  the  methods  employed  are 
quite  different  from  those  with  which  they  are  familiar. 
"  Last  night  I  attempted  to  assist  Charles  in  his  examples 
in  Least  Common  Multiple,  and  found  that  I  could  not  do 
it  because  the  method  is  so  different  from  the  one  I 
learned,"  said  a  father.  A  fevv  words  of  explanation  from 
the  teacher  removed  the  irritation  which  this  gentleman 
felt,  and  prevented  further  antagonism. 

The  superintendent  should  be  approachable,  so  that  par- 
ents will  feel  perfectly  free  to  consult  him  in  regard  to  the 
work  and  conduct  of  their  children.  He  should  be  patient 
and  cool  when  they  are  angry.  A  quarrel  can  never  take 
place  unless  there  are  at  least  two  parties  to  engage  in  it. 
The  one  who  controls  himself  and  will  not  be  drawn  into 
contention,  is  the  one  who  comes  off  victorious.  There  are 
times,  however,  when  not  to  resent,  to  submit  to  bullying, 
is  to  lose  one's  self-respect,  and  also  the  respect  of  the 
antagonist.  "My  weight  is  185  pounds,"  wrote  a  pugna- 
cious parent  to  a  principal.  The  latter  wrote  on  the  back 
of  the  note,  "Mine  is  210,"  signed  his  name,  and  returned 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND   TEACHER.       275 

the  note  to  the  sender.  The  argument  ended  at  that 
point.  In  another  instance,  the  teacher  wrote,  "  I  can 
weigh  a  ton  when  it  is  necessary." 

Although  the  superintendent  may  hear  complaints  from 
parents,  he  certainly  should  not  condemn  the  teacher  with- 
out a  hearing.  He  will  seek  to  be  just  to  both  sides,  and 
to  do  this  must  hear  them  both.  Knowing  the  difficulties 
of  the  teacher's  position,  and  having  confidence  in  his 
teachers,  his  sympathies  will  naturally  be  with  them.  But 
if  a  mistake  has  been  made,  or  a  wrong  done,  the  superin- 
tendent must  be  just.  No  parent  should  have  reason  to 
believe  that  the  superintendent  would  consent  to  under- 
mine a  subordinate  in  order  to  win  credit  to  himself.  His 
conduct  should  be  so  straightforward,  and  his  assumption 
of  responsibility  that  clearly  belongs  to  him  so  evident, 
that  no  one  can  accuse  him  of  shirking  his  duty.  Mr. 
Huling  says  in  speaking  of  the  principal :  "  He  should  sup- 
port the  teacher  against  aggrieved  parents,  not  by  telling 
falsehoods  in  her  favor,  but  by  pointing  out  the  embarras- 
sing conditions,  the  evidences  of  good  purpose  towards  the 
child,  and  the  child's  own  share  in  the  blame."  I  think 
the  same  remark  applies  to  the  superintendent.  Every 
parent  should  have  confidence  that  he  is  dealing  with  an 
honest  man,  who  understands  his  business,  and  who  is 
endeavoring  to  give  the  children  of  the  community  the 
best  that  modern  methods,  advanced  educational  thought, 
and  the  means  at  his  command  will  afford. 

Parents,  on  their  part,  should  furnish  liberal  support  in 
the  way  of  school  supplies,  giv^e  the  superintendent  large 
powers  as  to  the  conduct  of  the  school  system,  elect  a 
board  of  education  that  will  support  his  measures,  and 
abstain  from  carping  criticism.     They  should    open  their 


2^6  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

homes  and  their  hearts  to  him  as  a  social  equal,  and  give 
him  their  confidence  and  their  loyal  support.  If  he  is 
unworthy  of  all  this,  he  ought  not  to  occupy  the  responsible 
position  of  directing  the  educational  affaii-s  of  the  com- 
munity. If  this  confidence  and  this  position  are  accorded 
to  him,  a  great  deal  will  be  done  towards  insuring  a  suc- 
cessful administration  of  the  schools. 

/.  Relation  to  the  children.  —  No  superintendent  can 
know  all  of  the  children  in  his  schools,  but  they  can  know 
him.  They  should  think  of  him  as  a  friend,  and  not  as  an 
autocrat  who  sits  in  his  office  seeking  to  impose  hard  tasks 
upon  them,  or  concocting  different  kinds  of  punishment. 
A  school  board  of  a  small  town  once  made  a  rule  that  no 
corporal  punishment  should  be  inflicted  in  the  schools 
except  by  the  superintendent,  thus  relegating  to  him  an 
office  that  the  Jesuits  deemed  fitting  for  a  domestic  or 
porter,  who  was  the  official  disciplinarian  and  who  did  all 
the  flogging.  The  exercise  of  the  duties  of  such  an  office 
certainly  would  not  tend  to  win  the  affection  of  the  pupils, 
and  no  superintendent  should  consent  to  the  imposition  of 
such  a  requirement  upon  him. 

If  the  pupils  have  complaints  to  make,  or  if  they  desire 
help  or  advice,  the  superintendent  should  give  them  a  hear- 
ing. But  I  agree  with  Mr.  Huling  when  he  says  :  "The 
principal  should  support  the  teacher  against  opposing 
pupils,  not  by  denying  mistakes  if  they  have  occurred,  but 
by  holding  the  pupil  to  a  consideration  of  his  own  mistakes, 
and  by  a  refusal  to  allow  him  while  contumacious  to  discuss 
his  teacher's  acts,  or  at  any  time  to  undertake  her  disci- 
pHne." 

The  peculiarities  of  many  pupils  will  be  known  to  the 
superintendent.     It  may  be  that  a  child  possesses  marked 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND    TEACHER.       277 

ability  which  will  call  for  early  promotion  ;  or  that  he  is  a 
genius  in  some  studies  and  weak  in  others,  and  therefore 
demands  special  study  and  treatment.  Possibly  a  child  is 
slow  of  comprehension,  and  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  it 
is  a  case  of  retarded  development,  natural  dulness,  or 
imbecility.  Again,  the  home  surroundings  may  be  unfor- 
tunate, and  the  teacher  in  her  efforts  to  save  the  child  may 
need  just  the  help  that  the  superintendent  can  give.  Still 
again,  it  may  be  an  habitual  truant,  or  a  \dcious  child  for 
whom  radical  measures  are  necessary,  —  perhaps  he  must 
be  sent  to  a  reformatory.  By  virtue  of  his  office  and 
authority,  the  superintendent  is  the  proper  person  to  decide 
these  questions.  There  are  always  a  few  children  in  every 
school  system  whose  abnormal  characteristics  and  peculiar 
history  are  such  as  to  require  special  treatment,  and  this 
duty  will  fall  upon  the  superintendent.  In  no  part  of  his 
work  will  greater  wisdom  and  judgment  be  required  than 
in  the  field  just  described.  He  will  necessarily  second  and 
sustain  the  teacher  in  her  efforts  for  the  good  of  the  chil- 
dren, and  both  will  work  in  perfect  harmony  for  the  ends 
sought.  But  the  superintendent,  with  his  wider  experience 
and  greater  knowledge,  will  be  expected  to  suggest  reme- 
dies for  unusual  cases,  and  will  naturally  watch  the  result 
of  his  experiments. 

I  have  already  said  that  the  visits  of  the  superintendent 
should  not  be  dreaded.  He  will  not  gain  friends  by  show- 
ing his  "  power  to  tease  the  children  by  hard  and  unex- 
pected questions,  or  by  airing  his  wit  to  the  discomfiture 
of  some  apparent  dullard."  By  his  interest  in  the  whole 
body  of  pupils  and  in  individuals  ;  in  their  lessons  and 
their  sports  ;  in  their  school  and  their  home  life ;  in  their 
troubles    and    their   triumphs  ;    in    their    aspirations    and 


2y8  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

their  life  purposes  ;  in  their  moral  and  spiritual  as  well  as 
in  their  physical  and  intellectual  development  —  by  all  of 
these  means,  he  will  win  the  respect  and  love  of  his  pupils. 
By  his  genuineness,  his  manliness,  his  honesty,  his  frankness, 
his  justice,  his  sympathy,  he  will  win  the  admiration  of 
the  young,  and  inspire  them  to  emulate  his  example.  A 
superintendent  who  possesses  these  characteristics  and  this 
spirit  can  do  untold  good  in  a  community,  and  his  influence, 
like  that  of  Arnold  of  Rugby,  will  be  an  inspiration  to 
patriotism,  to  noble  living,  and  to  righteousness. 

II.  The  Principal.  —  Much  that  has  been  said  about  the 
superintendent  applies  equally  well  to  the  principal.  In 
many  communities,  the  principal  is  the  educational  leader. 
His  personal  character,  his  ability  to  lead,  his  broad  view 
of  education,  should  be  much  the  same  as  is  demanded  of 
the  superintendent.  Indeed,  there  are  principals  who  have 
under  their  charge  a  larger  number  of  pupils  than  superin- 
tendents in  small  towns.  By  virtue  of  having  a  single 
school  under  his  direction,  the  principal  may  come  into 
closer  touch  with  his  teachers  and  pupils  than  is  possible 
with  the  superintendent  of  a  large  system.  He  may  know 
all  the  details  of  the  school-work,  be  acquainted  with  the 
strong  and  weak  points  of  every  teacher,  and  be  familiar 
with  the  peculiarities  of  each  pupil.  Therefore  he  should 
be  able  to  correct  evils,  to  stimulate  interest,  to  direct  the 
studies,  and  to  enter  into  every  phase  of  school  life. 

In  his  teachers*  meetings,  the  principal  will  be  able  to 
study  the  questions  that  directly  affect  his  school.  His 
school  board  should  accord  him  great  liberty  in  the  man- 
agement of  his  school,  and  he  should  be  allowed  to  suggest 
improvements  and  work  out  his  own  educational  theories. 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND    TEACHER.       "279 

Of  course,  if  he  is  under  a  superintendent,  the  principal's 
schemes  should  not  be  out  of  harmony  with  those  of  his 
superior  officer.  Although  the  schools  of  a  system  will  all 
follow  the  same  general  policy,  each  school  will  have  an 
individuality,  and  will  exhibit  certain  elements  of  strength, 
and  thus  be  able  to  contribute  to  the  total  knowledge  of 
educational  practice.  To  secure  this  end,  the  principal,  as 
the  leader  of  his  school,  should  be  allowed  considerable 
independence  of  action.  Dr.  Bertram,  superintendent  of 
the  schools  of  Berlin,  after  visiting  many  schools  in  this 
country,  points  out  the  right  of  experimentation  as  one  of 
the  most  hopeful  features  of  the  American  schools.  The 
freedom  of  the  teachers  in  this  respect  is  in  strong  contrast 
with  the  ironclad  regulations  which  every  German  teacher 
must  follow. 

While  the  superintendent  will  inaugurate  plans  of 
research  and  experimentation  for  the  whole  system,  to 
each  principal  should  be  left  the  privilege  of  carrying  out 
the  details  in  his  own  school.  There  is  no  reason  for  pro- 
hibiting a  principal  from  instituting  special  investigations 
with  the  consent  of  those  higher  in  authority.  Hobbies, 
however,  are  not  to  be  ridden  to  the  detriment  of  the  gen- 
eral work.  The  science  of  education  has  made  great  prog- 
ress in  recent  years,  but  the  field  is  broad,  new  problems 
are  ever  appearing,  and  their  solution  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
schoolroom  as  well  as  at  the  theorist's  desk. 

The  principal's  relation  to  his  teachers  should  be  cor- 
dial, just,  honest,  and  frank.  Mr.  Huling  expresses  this 
thought  so  admirably  that  I  again  quote  from  him.  He 
remarks :  "  Indeed,  what  I  wish  to  plead  for  is  a  mutual 
sympathy  as  well  as  courtesy  between  principal  and  assist- 
ant, which   shall   display  itself   in  the   external   relations 


28o  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

simply  because  it  is  a  constant  resident  of  the  heart. 
There  are  burdens  enough  for  all  teachers  to  bear,  which 
are  not  of  their  own  making.  Let  us  add  no  more  to 
them  by  an  unwise  attitude  toward  our  fellow-workers. 
Suspicion,  doubt,  jealousy,  mistrust,  hostility, — these 
make  a  chilly  and  dark  atmosphere  in  which  to  cultivate 
the  flowers  of  mental  excellence  and  moral  worth.  It  is 
in  the  summer  meadows  amid  the  free  oxygen  of  sympa- 
thy and  loving  fellowship  that  such  blossoms  bourgeon  into 
loveliness ;  and  we  all  have  more  to  do  with  the  creation 
of  the  atmosphere  of  our  schoolrooms  than  we  sometimes 
acknowledge." 

If  the  superintendent  in  his  infrequent  visits  to  the 
schoolroom  is  to  guard  against  making  his  visits  unwel- 
come, how  much  more  should  the  principal  be  careful  to 
avoid  awakening  distrust  or  fear  in  the  minds  of  the 
teacher  and  pupils !  He  should  bring  sunshine  and 
helpfulness  and  good  cheer  into  the  classroom.  There 
should  be  nothing  disquieting  in  his  manner  ;  and  if  he 
chooses  to  take  part  in  the  recitation,  it  should  not  be  for 
the  purpose  of  exposing  the  ignorance  of  the  pupils  or 
exhibiting  his  own  superior  wisdom.  His  close  knowledge 
of  the  work  and  of  the  methods  of  instruction  should  en- 
able him  occasionally  to  take  the  recitation  entirely  into 
his  own  hands,  letting  the  teacher  observe  and  rest.  His 
presentation  of  the  subject  may  not  be.better  than  hers,  but 
it  will  be  different,  and  both  teacher  and  pupils  should  be 
benefited  thereby.  He  should  take  up  the  lesson  of  the 
day,  else  his  coming  will  be  looked  forward  to  as  a  period 
of  relief  from  the  regular  tasks,  and  hence  it  will  become 
a  disturbance  rather  than  a  help.  He  may  occasionally 
present  some  outside  work  when  there  is  a  particular  topic 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND    TEACHER.       28  I 

to  which  he  wishes  to  call  attention  and  to  emphasize. 
The  principal's  work  with  classes  should  not  be  mere 
diversion ;  it  should  strengthen  and  further  the  regular 
duties  of  the  class.  It  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  the 
school,  as  well  as  to  the  principal  himself,  if  he  could  teach 
some  classes  regularly  ;  not  too  many,  however,  so  as  to 
interfere  with  his  duties  as  supervisor  and  administrator. 
In  many  school  systems  the  sole  male  teacher  in  the  school 
is  the  principal,  in  some  even  the  principal  is  a  woman ; 
hence  a  child  may  go  entirely  through  the  elementary 
schools  without  receiving  instruction  from  a  male  teacher. 
This  is  not  a  question  of  the  superiority  of  one  sex  over 
the  other  in  power  of  instructing,  but  of  the  different  atti- 
tude of  the  two  sexes  towards  discipline,  and  as  to  manner 
of  presenting  a  subject.  All  will  agree  that  every  child, 
girl  or  boy,  should  at  some  time  come  under  the  instruc- 
tion and  discipline,  even  if  only  for  a  brief  period,  of  a 
male  teacher.  Hence  the  importance  of  the  male  principal 
having  the  privilege  of  teaching  every  class  in  his  school 
at  some  time  or  other. 

In  matters  of  discipline  the  teachers  should  find  in  their 
principal  a  strong  support.  But  when  a  pupil  is  referred 
to  him,  it  becomes  his  case  to  deal  with  according  to  his 
best  judgment.  No  teacher  should  send  a  child  to  the 
principal  with  the  suggestion,  "John  needs  a  whipping," 
or,  "Jane  should  be  expelled  from  school."  The  principal 
is  unprejudiced,  his  temper  is  unruffled,  he  is  full  of  re- 
sources. Therefore  he  must  be  left  to  act  as  he  deems 
best ;  and  when  he  sends  the  child  back  to  the  classroom, 
it  is  not  the  province  of  the  teacher  to  inquire  into  the 
punishment  inflicted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  principal's 
treatment  of  cases  sent  to  him  should  not  be  of  such  a 


282  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

trivial  nature  as  to  lead  the  pupil  to  believe  that  he  does 
not  support  his  assistants  in  discipline,  or  that  being  sent 
to  the  principal  is  a  mere  joke. 

The  principal's  touch  with  the  school  should  be  so  close 
that  he  will  be  acquainted  with  the  individual  pupils  who 
deserve  promotion  at  an  irregular  time,  as  well  as  with 
those  who  need  special  help.  His  examinations  or  tests, 
together  with  his  personal  knowledge  and  advice,  will  ma- 
terially aid  in  determining  the  list  for  general  promotion. 

Through  teachers'  and  parents'  meetings  (see  p.  244), 
through  contact  with  his  pupils  in  the  schoolroom  and  on 
the  playground,  through  his  cordial  and  manly  conduct 
towards  his  teachers,  by  his  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the 
community,  the  principal  will  unify  all  of  the  elements  of 
his  school  district  for  progressive  and  enthusiastic  educa- 
tional work. 

III.  The  Teachers.  —  Little  remains  to  be  said  as  to  the 
relation  of  the  teachers  to  their  superior  officers.  If  they 
expect  courtesy  and  consideration  from  their  superinten- 
dent and  principal,  they  should  give  loyalty  and  honest 
support  to  them.  When  assistants  can  no  longer  do  this, 
it  is  their  duty  to  seek  another  field.  This  by  no  means 
would  indicate  that  they  should  sink  their  identity  and 
become  servile  and  sycophantic  in  order  to  curry  favor. 
Such  a  spirit  is  contrary  to  the  whole  purpose  of  the 
requirements  set  forth  in  the  foregoing  pages.  Widest 
liberty  has  been  demanded  for  the  individual  teacher.  In 
methods  of  instruction  and  in  discipline,  each  teacher  must 
be  allowed  to  proceed  in  her  own  way,  and  only  when 
there  is  a  serious  deviation  from  sound  educational  practice 
should  the  teacher  be  interfered  with.     When,  however, 


SUPERINTENDENT,  PRINCIPAL,  AND    TEACHER.       283 

she  commits  a  manifest  error,  she  should  welcome  sug- 
gestions from  her  principal,  which  are  intended  to  set  her 
right  and  aid  her. 

Each  teacher  is  responsible  for  the  order  of  her  room. 
The  ability  to  maintain  order  is  a  part  of  the  teacher's 
professional  equipment  and  requirement.  She  cannot 
evade  this  responsibility  and  throw  it  upon  some  one  else. 
While  she  has  a  right  to  expect  the  support  of  her 
principal,  and  may  call  upon  him  for  assistance  in  extreme 
cases,  it  is  a  serious  mistake  for  her  to  send  children  to 
him  for  every  trivial  offence.  Such  a  course  is  an  assump- 
tion that  the  duty  of  discipline  rests  with  him  alone,  and 
it  would  soon  cause  a  class  to  lose  respect  for  their  teacher. 
Indeed,  if  too  many  children  are  sent  to  the  principal 
from  a  certain  room,  an  investigation  of  the  teacher  is  in 
order.  With  the  mutual  sympathy  between  principal 
and  teacher,  which  I  have  already  pointed  out  as  essential, 
each  will  support  the  other  in  every  duty  and  in  every 
function  of  school  life.  Then  the  assistant  will  go  to  her 
principal  when  she  needs  help,  and  in  him  she  will  find  a 
wise  counsellor  and  a  sincere  friend. 

Happy  the  educational  situation  in  a  community  when 
superintendent,  principal,  and  teacher  mutually  understand 
and  respect  one  another ;  when  they  work  harmoniously 
for  the  one  common  object,  the  good  of  the  children  ;  when 
they  loyally  hold  together  in  word  and  deed,  and  when  each 
unselfishly  endeavors  to  further  the  intellectual  and  moral 
well-being  of  those  committed  to  his  or  her  care.  For 
*'As  the  teacher  is,  so  is  the  school."  If  all  the  differ- 
ent ranks  of  teachers  are  ideal,  the  schools  will  be  ideal 


CHAPTER   XX. 

THE   SCHOOL   EXTERIOR.l 

It  is  not  possible  within  the  Hmits  of  this  book  to  dis- 
cuss the  particulars  of  either  the  exterior  or  the  interior  of 
the  school.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in  recent  years 
in  school  architecture.  Ventilation,  lighting,  heating,  and 
seating  have  been  studied  by  experts,  and  much  that  adds 
to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  pupils  has  been  learned. 
Besides  this,  the  utihty  of  the  school  buildings  has  been 
greatly  enhanced.  Many  of  the  problems  of  ventilation, 
heating,  etc.,  however,  are  not  yet  fully  solved,  and  doubt- 
less further  improvements  are  destined  to  be  made. 

Only  general  principles  can  be  here  presented.  The 
suggestions  made  are  designed  to  aid  the  young  teacher  in 
obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  case  his  advice 
should  be  asked,  and  also  to  furnish  him  with  intelligent 
reasons  for  correcting  the  evils  that  may  exist.  It  often 
occurs  that  teachers  drift  along  under  adverse  conditions 
which  might  be  corrected  or  improved  at  small  expense  if 

1  My  reason  for  presenting  this  chapter  and  the  one  follo'n'ing,  on  the 
School  Interior,  is  that  a  knowledge  of  the  themes  concerning  which  they 
treat  belongs  to  the  teacher's  equipment  in  the  particular  field  of  School 
Management.  Of  course,  the  reader  will  find  a  much  fuller  and  better  dis- 
cussion of  these  subjects  in  works  devoted  exclusively  to  them.  But  the 
young  teacher  does  not  possess  many  books,  and  he  may  have  none  bear' 
ing  on  school  hygiene  at  hand.  Hence  the  brief  treatment  here.  I  have 
drawn  freely  from  the  work  on  School  Hygiene  by  my  life  long  friend, 
Dr.  Edward   R.  Shaw,  lately  called  to  his  reward.     Not  long  before  his 

284 


THE   SCHOOL  EXTERIOR.  285 

the  teacher,  alive  to  the  evils,  is  able  intelligently  to 
present  the  situation  to  his  school  board,  and  to  suggest  a 
remedy  (see  p.  30).  Very  often  an  evil  is  allowed  to  exist 
unchecked  because  the  teacher,  as  well  as  the  school  board, 
is  ignorant  of  hygienic  laws,  and  of  the  principles  govern- 
ing the  arrangement  of  schoolrooms.  It  is  the  teacher's 
duty  to  be  acquainted  with  these  laws,  and  to  urge  the 
abatement  of  evils. 

To  his  care  are  committed  perhaps  half  a  hundred 
children  for  a  number  of  hours  a  day.  He  is  the  profes- 
sional expert  in  charge  of  the  school,  and  he  must  lead  the 
board  of  education  and  the  people  to  provide  the  best 
accommodations  obtainable.  While  ignorance  on  the  part 
of  the  patrons  of  the  school  may  be  pardonable,  it  is  inex- 
cusable in  the  teacher.  Where  the  teacher  knows  his 
ground,  presents  his  case,  and  makes  reasonable  requests, 
he  will  be  pretty  sure  to  have  the  latter  granted.  If,  how- 
ever, he  fail  to  attain  his  purpose,  the  responsibility  will 
rest  not  upon  him  but  upon  others  who  refuse  or  neglect 
to  perform  their  duty. 

I.  The  School-grounds.  —  The  environment  of  the  child 
has  an  important  bearing  upon  his  education.     Professor 

untimely  death,  I  consulted  with  him  upon  the  topics  here  treated,  and 
obtained  his  permission  to  make  use  of  his  extended  studies  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  school  hygiene.  I  wish,  therefore,  to  claim  no  originality  in  the 
material  of  these  two  chapters,  but  to  give  Dr.  Shaw  due  credit  for  his 
investigations,  some  of  which  are  placed  before  my  readers.  The  improve- 
ments in  school  architecture  are  so  frequent  and  so  constant  that  one  can 
scarcely  refer  to  a  standard  work  upon  the  subject  that  is  not  out  of  date. 
The  latest  and  best  treatise  is  that  of  Dr.  Shaw,  entitled  "  School  Hy- 
giene." I  commend  this  work  most  heartily.  The  student  of  the  subject 
will  need  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  most  recent  treatment  of  school  archi- 
tecture that  may  appear  from  time  to  time. 


286  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Bailey  says  :  "  One's  training  for  the  work  of  life  is  begun 
in  the  home  and  fostered  in  the  school.  This  training  is 
the  result  of  a  direct  and  conscious  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  parent  and  the  teacher,  combined  with  the  indirect 
result  of  the  surroundings  in  which  the  child  is  placed. 
The  surroundings  are  more  potent  than  we  think ;  and 
they  are  usually  neglected.  It  is  probable  that  the  antipa- 
thy to  farm-life  is  formed  before  the  child  is  able  to  reason 
on  the  subject.  An  attractive  playground  will  do  more 
than  a  profitable  wheat-crop  to  keep  the  child  on  the  farm. 
Bare,  harsh,  cheerless,  immodest,  —  these  are  the  facts 
about  the  average  rural  school-ground." 

a.  New  school-grojinds}  —  The  choice  of  school-grounds 
is  a  very  important  matter.  In  the  city  the  cost  of  the  site, 
the  location,  the  securing  of  sufficient  space  so  as  to  be 
unhampered  by  neighboring  buildings,  and  to  furnish  play- 
grounds, are  elements  which  make  the  selection  of  new 
grounds  a  difficult  problem.  In  rural  districts  where  land 
is  cheap,  and  where  there  is  plenty  of  room,  an  ideal  loca- 
tion can  be  chosen.  If  a  new  building  is  to  be  erected,  an 
architect  should  be  employed  at  the  outset.  He  will  be 
able  to  give  professional  advice  both  as  to  the  choice  of 
site  and  as  to  the  architecture  of  the  building,  thereby 
preventing  mistakes  being  rrs-le,  and  probably  saving  ex- 
pense to  the  district.  It  is  a  mistaken  economy  to  forego 
the  services  of  an  architect  on  account  of  his  fee.  If  he  is 
competent  and  honest,  he  will  save  the  taxpayers  several 
times  the  amount  of  his  fee,  besides  erecting  a  building 
with  the  latest  improvements  and  conveniences. 

A  convenient  and  accessible  location  should  be  chosen 
where  the  ground  is  dry,  and,  if  possible,  somewhat  elevated. 

1  See  Shaw's  "  School  Hygiene,"  p.  58. 


THE   SCHOOL   EXTERIOR.  287 

Fully  half  an  acre,  preferably  an  acre,  should  be  secured 
for  a  rural  school.  The  size  of  the  grounds  in  the  coun- 
try may  be  determined  by  the  probable  number  of  children 
to  attend  the  school.  If  there  are  not  more  than  twenty 
or  thirty  pupils,  half  an  acre  of  ground  should  suffice.  If 
there  are  more  than  thirty  children,  or  if  the  number  is 
likely  to  increase,  a  full  acre  should  be  secured.  This 
will  afford  plenty  of  room  so  that  the  building  can  be 
placed  back  from  the  street,  allowing  a  good-sized  front 
yard,  and  still  leaving  room  for  the  playground  in  the 
rear.  With  the  space  thus  afforded,  it  may  reasonably 
be  expected  that  the  children  will  not  be  allowed  to  play 
in  the  street  or  trespass  upon  neighboring  fields.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  purchase  too  limited  space  for  the  location 
of  a  new  school,  especially  in  the  country  where  land  is 
cheap. 

One  often  sees  the  rural  school,  like  the  pest-house, 
situated  far  from  any  other  human  habitation,  isolated  and 
forlorn.  I  could  never  see  any  good  reason  for  this ;  in- 
deed, there  are  good  reasons  for  the  rural  schoolhouse  being 
located  near  a  farmhouse.  Accidents  may  occur  whereby 
help  should  be  summoned  at  the  earliest  moment.  Not 
long  since  a  boy,  through  over-exertion  in  a  ball-game  at 
school,  fell  in  a  deadly  swoon  or  a  fit.  A  doctor  was  im- 
mediately called,  and  relief  was  obtained.  Had  the  school 
been  isolated,  as  many  of  our  rural  schools  are,  the  teacher 
would  have  been  helpless,  and  the  result  might  have  been 
fatal.  Then,  too,  the  school  should  not  be  considered  as 
a  nuisance  that  is  to  be  pushed  as  far  out  of  the  way  as 
possible.  It  should  have  a  warm  place  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people,  and  be  their  pride  and  their  joy.  Hence  it  should 
be  located  near   some  residence,  and  there  is  no  reason 


288  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

why  it  should  be  an  annoyance  to  any  one  if  the  teacher 
exercises  proper  control. 

The  selection  of  dry  grounds  is  most  essential.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  school  authorities  to  guard  well  the  health 
of  the  children  while  they  are  in  school.  This  cannot  be 
done  if  the  school  is  located  in  a  swampy,  malarial  neigh- 
borhood where  the  grounds  cannot  be  properly  drained. 
It  is  of  greater  importance  that  the  site  chosen  be  dry  and 
near  some  house  than  that  it  be  located  in  the  centre  of 
the  district. 

b.  Improvement  of  old  grounds.  —  The  erection  of  a  new 
school  building  in  the  rural  district  is  so  rare  an  occur- 
rence that  the  teacher's  advice  upon  this  question  will 
scarcely  ever  be  needed.  I  have  urged  that  the  teacher 
be  equipped  with  proper  understanding  of  this  subject,  not 
so  much  because  his  knowledge  will  often  be  called  into 
requisition,  —  though  if  it  should  be  sought  he  should  not 
be  found  w^anting,  —  but  for  professional  reasons,  as  a  part 
of  his  scientific  knowledge.  If  all  the  teachers  are  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  the  best 
means  of  applying  them  in  the  erection  and  maintenance 
of  school  buildings,  the  ideals  of  the  whole  community  upon 
these  matters  will  ultimately  be  raised. 

Even  if  advice  concerning  a  new  school  is  seldom  needed, 
every  teacher  in  the  country  or  in  the  village  will  have 
abundant  occasion  to  employ  his  knowledge  and  skill  in 
improving  the  environment  of  his  school.  The  forlorn 
condition  of  many  of  our  rural  school-grounds  is  a  shame 
to  the  teacher  and  the  community,  and  a  sin  against  the 
children.  The  founding  and  general  observance  of  Arbor 
Day  has  worked  most  excellent  results  in  improving  school- 
grounds.      Trees  and   shrubbery  have  been   set    out,  the 


THE   SCHOOL   EXTERIOR.  289 

grounds  have  been  graded,  sodded,  and  beautified,  and 
pride  in  the  appearance  of  the  school  premises  has  been 
awakened.  Besides  this,  the  pupils  as  well  as  the  parents 
have  learned  some  most  valuable  lessons  in  the  care  of 
plants.  The  offering  of  prizes  in  some  States  for  the  best 
kept  school-grounds  has  awakened  interest  in  this  subject 
and  stimulated  healthful  rivalry  between  schools. 

Arbor  Day  is  a  suitable  time  in  which  to  interest  pupils 
and  parents  in  beautifying  the  school-grounds.  Trees  can 
be  planted,  shrubbery  set  out,  flower-beds  planned,  walks 
laid  out.  If  proper  interest  has  been  awakened,  some 
parents  will  be  found  willing  to  assist  for  a  portion  of  the 
day  at  least  in  performing  the  more  difficult  parts  of  the 
labor.  In  improving  the  school-grounds,  pride  and  interest 
will  be  aroused  not  only  in  the  beauty  of  the  environ- 
ment, but  also  in  the  school  itself.  Arbor  Day  exercises 
may  thus  be  made  to  serve  the  school  and  make  it  popular 
in  the  community. 

Too  often  the  good  work  thus  begun  is  not  followed  by 
intelligent  and  persistent  care-taking.  Trees  and  plants 
must  be  watered,  fertilized,  and  protected,  walks  must  be 
kept  clean,  lawns  cut,  and  the  whole  school-yard  kept  free 
from  litter.  Children  will  gladly  assist  in  this  work  if  they 
have  an  intelligent  and  enthusiastic  leader.  Thus  they 
may  obtain  lessons  in  plant  life,  learn  to  be  orderly  and 
systematic,  acquire  a  love  for  the  beautiful  and  harmonious, 
and  withal  become  very  proud  of  their  school.  The  habits 
thus  inculcated  may  be  expected  to  exert  a  beneficent 
moral  influence  upon  the  later  life  of  the  children. 

"  But  I  shall  remain  in  this  school  only  this  year ;  why 
should  I  trouble  myself .?  Little  can  be  accomplished  in 
one  year,"  reflects  the  teacher.     The  evil  of  too  frequent 


290  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

change  of  teachers  is  thus  again  manifest.  But  even  if  a 
change  is  likely  to  take  place,  that  is  no  reason  for  allowing 
matters  to  drift  along  in  the  same  inevitable  rut.  What  I 
have  said  elsewhere  (see  p.  5 1 )  in  regard  to  grading  of  a 
school,  even  if  the  teachers  frequently  change,  is  appropriate 
in  this  connection.  Let  the  work  be  started  on  the  basis 
of  a  consistent  and  permanent  improvement,  and  let  a 
description  of  the  purpose  in  the  mind  of  the  originator  be 
left  in  the  school-desk  for  his  successor.  Each  new  teacher 
should  take  up  the  work  and  continue  it,  not  failing  to 
preserve  the  results  already  gained.  Thus,  in  time,  the 
"  bare,  harsh,  cheerless,  immodest  "  country-school  grounds, 
so  common  throughout  the  land,  will  become  a  "garden  of 
roses,"  a  most  attractive  and  delightful  spot,  the  joy  and 
pride  of  the  whole  neighborhood. 

Not  only  will  the  pupils  be  attracted  to  the  school,  and 
the  blessings  of  a  charming  environment  be  bestowed  upon 
them,  but  their  aesthetic  sense  will  be  cultivated.  When 
the  school  has  thus  become  attractive  through  the  combined 
exertions  of  pupils  and  parents  under  the  leadership  of  the 
teacher,  an  excellent  foundation  has  been  laid  towards 
making  the  school  a  social  centre.  The  school  of  the  rural 
community  is  the  one  common  ground  upon  which  all  meet 
with  perfect  equality.  It  is  usually  the  only  institution  of 
public  interest.  Let  it  be  made  beautiful  exteriorly  and 
interiorly ;  let  the  parents  be  drawn  together  to  make  the 
place  attractive ;  and  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  make  the 
rural  school  the  pride  of  the  whole  community. 

2.  The  Building.^  —  Too  often  the  rural  school  is  a  box- 
shaped,  barn-like  structure,  uncouth  and  forlorn  in  appear- 

1  See  Shaw's  "  School  Hygiene,"  p.  30. 


THE   SCHOOL   EXTERIOR.  29 1 

ance,  and  by  no  means  "a  thing  of  beauty."  One  has 
fittingly  described  a  common  type  of  country  schoolhouse  as 
having  "  four  walls,  a  floor,  and  a  roof.  It  is  oblong,  and  has 
windows  on  both  sides  to  ruin  the  pupils'  eyes,  and,  inci- 
dentally, to  look  better  from  the  outside."  Great  improve- 
ment has  been  made  in  the  architecture  of  cottages  and 
country  homes,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  a  correspond- 
ing improvement  should  not  take  place  with  school  build- 
ings. Some  States  have  wisely  enacted  that  no  building 
shall  be  erected  except  upon  plans  that  have  been  approved 
by  the  department  of  public  instruction.  This  insures  the 
most  modern  and  hygienic  structure  that  the  means  to 
be  devoted  to  this  end  will  afford. 

Only  a  few  general  suggestions  can  be  given  here.  In 
the  city  or  town,  more  liberal  and  intelligent  action  is  likely 
than  in  the  country.  I  shall  therefore  direct  attention 
particularly  to  the  country  school.  The  building  should 
be  located  back  from  the  street,  so  as  to  be  free  from  noise 
and  dust.  This  will  also  afford  space  in  front  for  flower- 
beds, shrubbery,  and  other  decorative  arrangements.  As 
to  the  position  of  the  building,  Dr.  Shaw  says :  "  Some 
authorities  recommend  that  the  building  should  stand  so 
that  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  may  enter  as  many  classrooms 
as  possible  some  time  during  the  hours  of  sunshine.  The 
recommendation  is  an  excellent  one,  for  the  sun  not  only 
imparts  cheerfulness,  but  is  Nature's  purifier.  Direct 
sunlight,  it  is  well  known,  acts  as  a  disinfectant,  arresting 
the  spread  of  infectious  diseases." 

Whatever  be  the  position  of  a  one-room  school,  the 
windows  can  be  placed  and  the  seats  arranged  so  as  to 
secure  proper  light,  there  being  ample  space  about  the 
building  to  insure  no  interference  with  the  light.     If,  for 


292  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

external  architectural  effect,  windows  are  placed  on  both 
sides  of  the  building,  the  light  in  the  room  can  be  con- 
trolled by  blinds  or  shades. 

No  building  should  be  erected  without  a  suitable  base- 
ment. A  building  without  a  cellar  is  apt  to  be  damp  and 
unhealthful ;  besides,  the  floor  cannot  be  kept  warm  in  the 
winter.  Cellar  space  is  valuable  for  storage  purposes,  even 
if  the  heating  apparatus  should  not  be  located  there.  The 
expense  of  a  cellar  is  comparatively  little,  and  the  advan- 
tages gained  far  outweigh  the  additional  cost. 

If  there  is  a  large  number  of  children,  there  should  be 
separate  entrances  for  each  sex.  In  small  schools  one 
entrance  will  suffice,  but  in  every  case  there  should  be 
separate  cloak-rooms.  The  cloak-rooms  should  have  two 
outlets,  to  admit  of  pupils  moving  through  them  without 
crowding  and  with  expedition.  The  teacher  should  be 
able  to  pass  his  pupils  in  and  out  of  the  building  in  the 
shortest  possible  time  and  in  good  order.  In  schools  of 
several  classrooms  there  should  be  a  cloak-room  for  each 
sex  in  connection  with  each  room.  Further  discussion  of 
this  topic,  as  well  as  other  questions  connected  with  the 
building,  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter. 

These  are  the  general  principles  which  should  be  fol- 
lowed, the  details  of  which  must  be  sought  in  works  on 
school  architecture  or  school  hygiene.  Dr.  Shaw  very 
wisely  remarks  :  "  We  hold  that  the  schoolroom  should  be 
the  unit  first  to  be  considered  in  planning  a  school  building, 
and  that  the  building  should  be  a  number  of  schoolrooms 
properly  disposed,  and  not  a  whole  cut  up  into  school- 
rooms, whose  size  and  arrangement  depend  upon  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  building.  If  the  hygienic  requirements 
of  the  schoolroom  are  first  clsarly  and  fully  understood. 


THE    SCHOOL    EXTERIOR. 


^93 


and  then  firmly  held  in  mind,  the  building  is  more  likely 
to  be  considered  as  the  grouping  of  the  number  of  school- 
rooms required,  with  halls  and  other  auxiliaries,  and  is, 
therefore,  much  more  likely  to  be  so  planned  as  to  give 
each  unit,  or  schoolroom,  what  the  laws  of  health  demand 
for  pupils  who  are  to  occupy  it." 

3.  Out-buildings.  —  It  is  better,  when  possible,  to  locate 
the  water-closets  in  the  school  building  in  close  connection 
with  the  cloak-rooms.  They  can  be  better  controlled,  kept 
cleaner,  and  will  afford  less  opportunity  for  indecent  acts. 
But  where  there  is  no  running  water  in  the  building,  or 
no  janitor  to  take  care  of  dry  closets,  they  must  be  placed 
outside  of  the  school  building.  This  will  doubtless  con- 
tinue to  be  the  practice  in  rural  districts.  Out-buildings 
should  be  placed  some  distance  away  from  the  school 
building,  should  be  entirely  separate  for  the  sexes,  and 
should  be  screened  from  public  view.  A  high,  close-fitting 
board  fence  should  separate  the  approaches  to  the  girls' 
and  boys'  closets.  Some  States  have  enacted  explicit  laws 
upon  this  subject,  and  the  enforcement  of  these  laws  is 
more  and  more  strict  each  year.  There  remains,  however, 
much  to  be  done  in  this  matter,  even  in  States  where  the 
statutes  are  sufficient.  Inexcusable  neglect  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  and  the  school  board  permits  the  continuance 
of  conditions  that  are  nothing  less  than  an  evil  and  a 
nuisance.  Many  of  our  rural  schools  are  utterly  lacking 
in  suitable  out-buildings  and  proper  screens  to  their 
approaches. 

Common  decency,  and  respect  for  the  feelings  of  modesty 
of  the  children,  to  say  nothing  of  regard  for  their  morals, 
require  a   strict  compliance  with  the   above  suggestions. 


294  ^    ^'^^^'    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Where  a  deficiency  in  the  arrangement  of  the  out-buildings 
exists,  the  teacher  should  call  the  attention  of  the  board  to 
it  at  once,  and  not  cease  to  agitate  the  matter  until  the 
evil  is  remedied.  The  closets  should  be  kept  clean,  the 
walls  preserved  from  inscriptions,  and  the  strictest  surveil- 
lance maintained.  I  have  seen  school  out-buildings  where 
filth  abounded,  where  the  walls  were  covered  with  obscene 
expressions,  and  where  foulness  and  indecency  appeared 
on  every  hand.  Neither  teacher  nor  janitor  paid  the 
slightest  attention  to  this  part  of  their  domain,  or  made 
any  attempt  to  secure  cleanliness.  It  is  useless  to  expect 
high  moral  standards  in  a  school  that  permits  such  a  state 
of  things,  no  matter  what  may  be  done  inside  of  the  school 
building.  Such  evils  will  counteract  a  great  deal  of  moral 
instruction,  and  render  ineffective  ethical  lectures. 

What  is  demanded  of  the  teacher  is  knowledge  of  proper 
conditions,  wisdom  in  interesting  the  school  authorities  to 
carry  out  reforms,  and  enthusiasm  in  promoting  and  secur- 
ing the  best  hygienic  school  environment.  The  teacher 
that  secures  these  results  is  not  only  an  educator,  but  also 
a  benefactor  to  the  community. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

THE    SCHOOL   INTERIOR. 

The  arrangement  of  the  interior  of  the  school  is  of 
greater  moment  even  than  that  of  the  exterior.  The 
amount  of  space  provided,  the  lighting  and  heating,  the 
seating,  the  ventilation,  are  matters  of  vital  interest  to  the 
teacher.  The  health  and  comfort  of  the  pupils,  as  well  as 
the  efficiency  of  the  school-work,  will  depend  almost  en- 
tirely upon  the  internal  conveniences.  If  it  is  necessary 
that  the  teacher  shall  be  informed  as  to  the  school  exte- 
rior, it  is  even  more  necessary  that  he  shall  understand  the 
proper  conditions  for  the  interior.  Architects,  and  even 
school  boards,  are  likely  to  give  their  chief  attention  to 
the  architectural  effect  of  the  exterior.  Hence  the  greater 
need  of  the  teacher  being  familiar  with  the  requirements 
of  the  interior  of  the  school.  When  a  building  is  to  be 
constructed,  the  teacher  should  watch  the  plans  of  the 
interior,  in  order  to  secure  the  conveniences  and  hygienic 
arrangements  required  for  good  school-work.  He  must 
not  forget  that  perhaps  fifty  human  beings  will  spend  five 
or  six  hours  a  day  in  the  schoolroom,  and  that  he  is  largely 
responsible  for  their  well-being.  The  immaturity  and  help- 
lessness of  these  children  only  add  to  the  gravity  of  the 
responsibility.  If  it  is  essential  that  the  teacher  should 
be  familiar  with  the  external  requirements  of  the  school, 
he  should  be  an  expert  as  to  the  interior.     He  should  know 

-95 


ig()  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

just  what  is  needed  and  why  a  thing  is  needed.  With  this 
knowledge  he  will  be  able  to  prevent  mistakes  in  the  con- 
struction, and  secure  the  very  best  that  the  appropriation 
will  permit. 

A  knowledge  of  the  school  interior  is  important  also  in 
considering  an  old  building  when  no  construction  of  a  new 
one  is  contemplated.  Changes  to  meet  hygienic  require- 
ments may  be  made  at  small  expense.  Ignorance  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  and  indifference  from  the  school  board 
are  often  responsible  for  the  continuance  of  evils  that  are 
most  disastrous  to  the  health  of  the  children,  and  a  hin> 
drance  to  efficient  work.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to 
lay  before  his  board  actual  evil  conditions  and  the  remedy 
therefor.  Few  school  boards  will  hesitate  to  correct  seri- 
ous evils  when  these  are  made  known  to  them.  The  prin- 
cipal of  a  boarding-school,  who  had  just  been  placed  in 
charge,  became  convinced  that  there  was  sewer-gas  in  the 
building.  He  called  the  attention  of  the  board  of  trustees 
to  the  matter  without  avail.  They  told  him  that  his  prede- 
cessor had  pronounced  the  building  in  perfect  condition. 
This  did  not  convince  him  ;  the  evil  became  too  apparent. 
After  vainly  seeking  relief  from  the  authorities  over  him, 
he  took  the  responsibility  to  call  in  a  plumber  to  make  an 
examination.  Feeling  the  value  of  the  health  and  lives 
of  the  students  committed  to  his  care,  he  could  not  remain 
inactive,  even  though  he  jeopardized  his  position.  A  sad 
condition  of  things  was  laid  bare.  The  open  pipes  leading 
to  the  sewer  were  found  to  be  without  traps ;  abandoned 
cesspools  were  discovered  in  the  cellar,  having  been  cov- 
ered over  with  a  coat  of  cement  without  being  cleaned  ;  old 
sewer-pipes  reeking  with  filth  were  unearthed  under  the 
cellar,  and  the  whole  place  was  found  to  be  in  a  most  dan- 


THE    SCHOOL   INTERIOR.  297 

gerous  State.  When  the  discoveries  were  made,  the  teacher 
called  in  the  president  of  the  board  and  showed  him  the 
situation.  The  responsibility  was  at  once  assumed  by  that 
gentleman,  and  the  plumbing  was  put  in  thorough  repair. 
School  boards  will  be  found  ready  to  act  when  convinced 
of  the  existence  of  an  evil,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the 
teacher  to  call  their  attention  to  faulty  construction  and 
unsanitary  conditions.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid 
ifpon  the  importance  of  knowledge  of  hygiene  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher. 

Size  and  Shape  of  the  Schoolroom. ^  —  The  best  authori- 
ties demand  at  least  1 5  square  feet  of  floor-space  and  200 
cubic  feet  of  air-space  for  each  pupil.  These  requirements 
will  be  met  if  the  room  is  30  feet  long,  25  feet  wide,  and 
13  feet  high,  with  not  more  than  48  pupils.  Better 
acoustic  properties  will  be  secured  in  a  room  oblong  in 
shape  —  a  matter  of  considerable  importance  to  the  teacher 
in  the  use  of  his  voice,  and  to  the  pupils  in  hearing.  In  a 
rural  school  where  the  number  of  pupils  is  likely  to  be  less 
than  48,  the  room  may  be  smaller,  but  should  be  con- 
structed on  the  same  general  plan  and  in  the  same  propor- 
tions. It  is  a  mistake  to  build  too  small,  as  the  first  cost 
will  not  be  relatively  much  greater,  while  an  abundance  of 
room  conserves  the  health  of  the  pupils  and  increases  the 
effectiveness  of  the  school-work.  Especially  important  is 
this  in  a  growing  community  where  additional  room  may 
soon  be  required.  Better  ventilation  can  be  secured, 
better  order  preserved,  and  better  work  done,  if  there  is 
plenty  of  room.  On  the  other  hand,  the  building  should 
not  be  too  large  unless  there  is  a  probability  of  an  increase 

1  See  Shaw's  "  School  Hygiene,"  p.  2. 


298  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

in  the  number  of  pupils,  for  the  expense  of  heating  and 
maintenance  will  be  needlessly  increased.  The  building 
should  be  substantially  constructed,  so  as  not  soon  to  need 
repairs,  and  so  as  to  be  safe  and  warm. 

Seating.  —  All  authorities  agree  that  the  seats  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  bring  the  light  from  the  left  side 
and  from  the  rear.  Most  of  the  light  should  come  from 
the  left,  that  from  the  rear  being  utilized  only  when  the 
side  light  is  insufficient.  The  obvious  reason  for  receiving 
the  light  chiefly  from  the  left  is  that  shadows  of  the  hand 
are  avoided,  most  pupils  sitting  with  the  right  side  to  the 
desk  and  writing  with  the  right  hand,  thus  securing  free 
light  upon  their  work,  without  shadows.  The  seats  should 
be  placed  as  close  as  possible  to  the  windows,  thus  securing 
the  best  light  and  leaving  space  for  blackboard  work  and 
schoolroom  movements,  as  well  as  tables  for  the  primary 
classes,  upon  the  side  remotest  from  the  windows.  Single 
desks  should  be  used  both  for  disciplinary  and  for  hygienic 
reasons.  Better  order  can  be  maintained  when  each  pupil 
is  pro\'ided  with  a  desk.  Both  the  desk  and  the  chair 
should  be  capable  of  adjustment  to  suit  the  height  of  each 
individual  child.^ 

For  adjusting  the  desk  and  chair,  Shaw  gives  the  follow- 
ing excellent  rules :  — 

"  Rules  for  adjusting  desks  and  seats  —  the  cJiair.  — 
The  upper  surface  of  the  seat  should  be  as  high  above  the 
floor  as  the  child's  leg  is  long,  measured  from  the  sole  of 
the  foot  to  the  under  side  of  the  thigh  near  the  knee-joint, 
when  the  thigh  and  lower  leg  are  bent  at  right  angles.     A 

1  Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  the  Heusinger  desk  best  meets  all  requirements. 
For  description  of  this  desk,  see  his  "  School  Hygiene,"  p.  150. 


THE    SCHOOL   INTERIOR. 


299 


measuring-rod  is  furnished  by  some  makers  of  school 
furniture.  ...  It  consists  of  a  square  rod  on  which  there 
is  a  scale  of  inches.  The  square  rod  is  fitted  with  a 
sHding  arm,  having  two  branches  projecting  at  right  angles 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  rod,  but  with  one  branch  of 
the  arm  below  the  other  a  distance  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  chair-bottom.  The  pupil  is  seated  with  the  foot 
pressing  fully  upon  the  floor  and  the  lower  leg  vertical. 
The  upper  branch  of  the  projecting  arm  is  placed  under 
the  thigh  near  the  knee-joint,  and  this  distance  read  off 
on  the  scale.  The  number  of  inches  may  then  be  written 
on  a  piece  of  paper  and  left  on  the  desk  fastened  under  the 
ink-well  cover,  for  the  janitor  to  adjust  the  chair  to  this 
height.  The  chair-bottom  may  then  be  raised  or  lowered, 
and  rested  on  the  lower  branch  of  the  projecting  arm  .  .  . 
and  quickly  secured  by  the  nut  on  the  chair-standard. 

"The  Jiip-rcst.  —  The  hip-rest  must  be  adjusted  so  that 
it  supports  the  back  just  above  the  hips. 

"  The  desk.  —  The  top  of  the  desk  should  be  raised  or 
lowered,  as  the  case  may  demand,  so  that  the  pupil,  in 
writing,  will  not  have  his  shoulders  raised  in  the  least,  nor 
forced  to  drop  the  head  and  bend  the  spine  forward.  For 
desks  adjustable  for  minus  distance,  the  sliding  top  must 
be  drawn  down  so  that  it  nearly  touches  the  ventral  side 
of  the  body,  when  the  pupil  is  sitting  in  correct  posture 
after  the  chair  has  been  properly  adjusted.  While  in  this 
position  the  desk  should  be  raised  or  lowered,  as  may  be 
required,  so  that  the  pupil's  forearms  will  rest  easily  on  the 
top,  with  the  elbows  a  hand's-breadth  from  the  body  and  in 
proper  position  for  writing  with  a  desk  slope  of  1 5°.  With 
this  adjustment  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  maintain  an  easy 
and  correct  posture.     His  shoulders  will  not  be  raised,  nor 


300 


A    NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


will  he  be  obliged  to  drop  the  head  or  bend  the  spine 
forward." 

The  seats  and  desks  should  be  adjusted  to  the  size 
of  the  children,  and  during  the  periods  of  rapid  growth 
there  should  be  two  adjustments  a  year.  This  will  involve 
some  little  expense,  as  a  skilled  mechanic  is  required,  but 
the  valuable  results  to  be  gained  make  such  an  outlay 
desirable  and  wise. 

In  an  old  school  building  the  teacher  will  have  to  make 
the  best  of  such  desks  as  he  finds.  If  they  are  not  so 
placed  as  to  secure  the  best  light  coming  from  the  right 
direction,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  a  change,  as 
we  have  seen  elsewhere. 

Windows,  Shades,  etc.  —  Too  much  attention  cannot  be 
devoted  to  the  matter  of  proper  light  in  the  schoolroom. 
The  general  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  the  amount  of 
glass  surface  in  the  windows  should  be  from  one-sixth  to 
one-fourth  of  the  floor-space  of  the  room.  The  best  light 
is  obtained  from  the  upper  part  of  the  windows,  therefore 
they  should  be  carried  to  a  point  as  near  to  the  ceiling  as 
possible.  Here  is  apparent  the  need  of  high  ceilings,  13 
feet  at  least,  as  heretofore  required.  The  window-sills 
should  be  from  3|-  to  4  feet  from  the  floor,  thus  being  above 
the  level  of  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  when  seated  at  their 
desks,  and  not  reflecting  the  light  from  the  tops  of  the 
desks.  The  windows  should  be  as  close  together  as  possi- 
ble to  prevent  shadows,  and  they  should  all  be  placed  on 
one  side  of  the  room  only,  pro\aded  sufficient  light  can  be 
obtained.  Should  the  light  from  one  side  be  insufficient, 
there  may  be  windows  at  the  rear,  the  light  from  which 
can   be   utilized   on   dark    days   or   whenever   necessary. 


THE    SCHOOL   INTERIOR. 


301 


Light  should  never  be  admitted  from  both  sides  of  the 
room.  Should  the  architect  place  windows  on  both  sides 
for  the  sake  of  architectural  effect,  either  blinds  or  heavy 
shades  must  be  employed  to  exclude  the  light  from  the 
right  side  of  the  pupils'  desks. 

Opaque  shades  will  be  necessary  also,  upon  windows 
through  which  light  is  admitted,  so  as  to  control  the  amount 
of  light.  Shades  should  be  of  a  greenish  tint,  and  roll  from 
both  top  and  bottom  as  may  be  desired.^  The  walls  of  the 
schoolroom  may  be  tinted  so  as  greatly  to  favor  the  light. 
Dr.  Shaw  says :  "  A  light  green  gray,  as  near  to  white  as 
possible,  is  recommended.  The  light  greenish  gray  should 
be  soft  and  not  harsh.  It  may  be  produced  by  the  proper 
combination  of  pigments.  Antwerp  blue  and  raw  sienna 
with  white  as  a  base,  will  give  the  proper  tint.  The  walls  in 
every  instance  should  be  painted,  in  order  that  they  may 
be  washed.  There  should  be  no  gloss,  and  the  paint  put 
on  should  be  stippled,  to  prevent  all  reflection.  The  ceil- 
ing should  be  white,  in  order  that  the  least  possible  amount 
of  light  may  be  absorbed  by  it." 

Although  many  things  about  the  schoolroom  cannot  be 
changed,  the  shades,  the  color  of  t^ie  walls,  the  direction 
from  which  the  light  comes  upon  the  desks,  are  matters 
that  admit  of  adjustment  and  correction.  If  the  teacher 
appreciates  the  danger  to  the  eyesight  of  children  from 
neglect  of  the  simplest  precautions,  and  from  failure  to 
introduce  measures  of  relief,  he  will  not  rest  until  the 
hygienic  requirements  are  met.  The  flapping  of  shades, 
the  exposure  to  direct  sunlight,  either  upon  the  desk  or 

1  I  have  seen  an  excellent  shade  manufactured  by  the  Automatic  Manu- 
facturing Company,  Syracuse,  N.Y.  It  is  easily  adjusted,  durable,  and  may 
be  set  to  shade  any  part  of  the  window  desired.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
schoolrooms. 


302 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


in  the  face,  the  flickering  shadows,  however  produced,  the 
bad  air  in  the  room, —  these,  and  other  influences,  exert  a 
damaging  effect  upon  the  eyes.  They  must  be  corrected, 
and  measures  introduced  to  guard  against  dangerous  and 
damaging  effects  upon  the  children. 

The  Blackboards.  —  Blackboards  should  occupy  every 
available  space  about  the  schoolroom.  They  should  be  of 
slate,  either  wholly  black  or  of  a  greenish  tint.  Slate  is 
more  economical  in  the  long  run,  than  any  other  kind  of 
blackboard,  though  more  expensive  at  the  outset.  It  is 
more  easily  kept  clean,  does  not  require  so  much  crayon, 
and  therefore  does  not  create  so  much  dust,  and  does  not 
wear  out.  The  cracks  and  holes  incident  to  the  wall 
blackboard,  which  are  so  unsightly ;  the  constantly  fading 
color,  requiring  frequent  recoating  ;  the  expense  of  repairs, 
—  all  these  make  blackboards  of  this  character  most  unde- 
sirable. Doubtless,  it  could  be  shown,  from  the  standpoint 
of  expense,  even,  that  slate  blackboards  are  the  cheaper, 
besides  being  far  better  in  every  way. 

Blackboards  should  be  26  inches  from  the  floor  for 
primary,  30  inches  for  the  intermediate,  and  36  inches  for 
the  grammar  grades.  They  should  be  supplied  with  a 
dust-trough  2^  inches  wide.  The  blackboard  should  be 
frequently  washed,  the  erasers  dusted,  and  the  troughs 
cleaned  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  dust. 

Cloak-rooms —  I  have  said  that  in  every  classroom  there 
should  be  for  each  sex  a  cloak-room  with  two  outlets  and  of 
sufficient  size  to  admit  of  freedom  of  movement  at  the  time 
of  dismissal.  The  cloak-room  should  be  well  lighted,  warm, 
and  properly  ventilated.     It  should  connect  with  the  class- 


THE   SCHOOL   INTERIOR. 


3^3 


room  and  with  the  hall,  and  should  be  large  enough  to 
afford  ample  space  for  hats,  wraps,  and  umbrellas,  with  suit- 
able receptacles  for  each.  In  no  case  should  the  hall  be 
utilized  for  closet  purposes.  The  halls  should  be  kept  in 
good  condition,  free  from  obstructions,  and  as  attractive  as 
possible.  This  would  be  impossible  if  they  were  lined  with 
hooks  upon  which  hats  and  wraps  were  hung.  The  halls 
should  be  kept  tidy,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  impression 
made  upon  visitors,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  the  children, 
who  are  influenced  by  environment.  More  important  still 
is  the  necessity  of  a  dry  and  safe  place  where  the  wardrobe 
of  the  children  can  be  kept  in  a  wholesome  condition,  and 
at  no  risk  of  theft. 

Heating  and  Ventilation.  —  In  the  old-time  school,  no 
attention  whatever  was  paid  to  ventilation.  A  great  deal  of 
agitation  in  recent  years,  combined  with  a  careful  study  of 
the  subject,  has  brought  about  a  great  change  in  the  attitude 
of  the  public  towards  ventilation.  Churches,  public  halls, 
schools,  private  residences,  are  being  built  on  more  hygienic 
plans,  and  their  ventilation  is  being  carefully  considered. 
No  new  school  building  should  be  erected,  even  in  the  re- 
mote rural  district,  without  installing  some  adequate  system 
of  purifying  the  air.  Where  a  number  of  people  are  con- 
gregated for  a  considerable  time  within  a  small  space,  there 
is  need  of  some  means  of  changing  the  air.  The  old- 
fashioned  stove  with  its  rapid  wood  fire  was  most  effective 
for  dwelling-houses,  and  the  open  fireplace  with  its  large 
chimney  and  its  back-log  was  still  more  effective  where 
there  was  question  only  of  the  members  of  the  family.  But 
in  large  buildings  where  many  persons  are  brought  together 
such  primitive  means  will  not  suffice.       Artificial  means  of 


3^4 


A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEiViENT. 


changing  the  air  are  absolutely  necessary.  Some  one  has 
said,  "  If  air  is  wanted  in  any  particular  place  at  any  par- 
ticular time,  it  must  be  put  there,  not  allowed  to  go." 
Hence,  there  must  be  fans  to  force  the  air  into  the  rooms 
as  wanted,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  there  must  be  exhaust- 
fans  to  pump  the  foul  air  out.  Both  of  these  conditions 
must  be  met,  or  the  bad  smells  of  the  school  where  many 
children  are  congregated  will  be  apparent. 

Upon  visiting  a  new  school  building  in  the  city  of  Ber- 
lin, I  was  invited  to  examine  the  construction.  I  met  the 
royal  architect  who  had  erected  the  building,  and  questioned 
him  as  to  the  ventilation.  He  explained  that  the  air  was 
allowed  to  come  into  the  room  near  the  ceiling  and  go  out 
near  the  floor.  "Is  the  system  effective .'^ "  I  asked.  "Oh, 
yes,"  said  he,  "it  works  very  well."  I  stepped  over  to  the 
outlet-flue  and  held  my  handkerchief  before  it.  There  was 
not  the  shghtest  movement.  The  architect  remarked  that 
the  flue  seemed  to  be  out  of  order.  "But,"  said  I,  "I 
have  tried  several  flues  with  the  same  result.  Moreover,  I 
have  noticed  bad  odors  in  many  parts  of  the  building,  indi- 
cating that  the  ventilating  system  was  ineffective."  "  WeU," 
said  he,  "there  is  no  use  of  practising  deception.  Our 
system  here  does  not  work,  and  no  system  will  work  unless 
there  is  artificial  means  of  propelling  the  air.  This  we 
cannot  afford  in  our  public  schools  because  of  the  great 
expense." 

The  unpleasant  odor  of  the  schoolroom  is  not  the  worst 
feature  of  foul  air,  though  it  may  be  the  first  means  of 
announcing  the  bad  ventilation  of  a  room.  Far  worse  is 
the  effect  upon  the  health  —  the  impaired  eyesight,  the 
weakened  lungs,  the  vitiated  blood,  the  depletion  of  vital 
life  and  power.     All  of  these  hinder  the  child  from  learning 


THE    SCHOOL   INTERIOR.  305 

and  the  teacher  from  instructing.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
bad  ventilation  of  many  school  buildings  is  responsible  not 
only  for  the  ill-health  of  many  children,  but  also  for  inef- 
ficient work. 

It  is  a  general  principle  of  ventilation  that  the  fresh,  pure 
air  must  be  brought  in  direct  from  outdoors,  heated  to  the 
proper  temperature,  and  distributed  to  each  individual 
room.  It  should  be  brought  into  the  room  near  the  ceiling, 
and  the  foul  air  removed  from  an  opening  perhaps  two  feet 
from  the  floor.  Dr.  Shaw  seems  to  prove  that  these  two 
openings  should  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  room,  though 
not  one  above  the  other.  Not  only  must  the  fresh  air  be 
brought  independently  to  each  room,  but  there  must  be  an 
individual  outlet  from  each  room  for  the  bad  air.  The  one 
is  as  essential  as  the  other,  and  it  will  be  found  that  if  only 
one  of  these  features  is  carried  out,  the  ventilating  system 
will  be  ineffective.  In  city  schools  where  the  question  of 
expense  is  not  so  important,  fans  can  be  introduced  as 
already  suggested.  The  expense  involved  is  sure  to  bring 
back  returns,  not  only  in  the  health  of  the  pupils,  which 
would  be  sufficient  in  itself,  but  also  in  the  increased  ability 
to  perform  school-tasks.  The  principal  of  a  large  school 
that  was  equipped  with  an  efficient  ventilating  system, 
informed  me  that  the  air  was  not  only  pure  and  fresh  at  all 
times  of  the  year,  but  upon  hot  days  the  temperature  of 
the  schoolrooms  was  several  degrees  lower  than  that  out- 
side. Thus  the  school,  instead  of  being  a  hot,  stuffy,  and 
dreaded  place  in  warm  weather,  was  made  the  most  delight- 
ful and  the  coolest  spot  in  the  town.  The  air  that  was 
brought  into  the  school  passed  first  through  a  long  duct  in 
the  ground  beneath  the  basement,  which  cooled  the  air  sev- 
eral degrees.     If  one  could  estimate  the  amount  gained  by 


3o6  A    NEW    SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

teachers  and  pupils  in  this  increased  power  of  work  through 
producing  an  agreeable  temperature,  it  would  be  found  that 
the  outlay  for  a  ventilating  system  and  its  maintenance  is 
a  good  investment. 

Simpler  and  less  expensive  means  of  ventilation  must  be 
adopted  for  rural  school  buildings.  I  take  the  liberty  to 
quote  at  length  once  more  from  Dr.  Shaw  upon  this  point: 
"  In  order  to  ventilate  the  rural  schoolhouse,  the  stove 
should  be  placed  in  one  corner  of  the  room,  and  near  the 
chimney.  The  stove  should  be  enclosed  by  a  sheet-iron 
jacket,  leaving  a  distance  of  from  i8  inches  to  2  feet 
between  the  stove  and  the  inside  of  the  jacket.  The  jacket 
should  be  about  6  feet  high,  and  should  extend  to  the  floor. 
The  opening  in  the  jacket  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the 
stove  with  fuel  should  be  as  narrow  as  feasible,  A  cold- 
air  duct  should  be  constructed  to  lead  from  the  outside  of 
the  building  underneath  the  floor,  and  to  open  beneath  the 
stove,  so  that  pure,  fresh  air  will  flow  in,  be  warmed  by  the 
stove,  and  rise  to  the  ceiling. 

"The  point  to  be  secured  in  the  heating  and  ventilating 
of  the  rural  schoolhouse  is  the  quick  and  uniform  distribu- 
tion of  the  heat  to  all  parts  of  the  room.  In  the  opposite 
side  of  the  room  from  the  stove,  a  tin  or  galvanized  iron 
ventilating-duct  should  be  constructed,  oblong  in  shape, 
having  its  cross-section  dimensions  12x6  inches.  The 
open  end  of  this  duct  should  be  within  i  foot  of  the  floor. 
The  flue  should  extend  to  the  ceiling  and  run  along  the 
ceiling  to  the  chimney.  There  should  not  be  any  sharp 
angle  in  this  duct,  but  a  curved  bend  where  the  upright 
section  unites  with  that  which  runs  along  the  ceiling.  The 
ventilating-duct  should  discharge  into  a  large  chimney-flue, 
at  least   14X  20  incites  of  cross-section  area.      In  the  mid- 


THE    SCHOOL    INTERIOR.  307 

die  of  this  flue  there  should  run  a  sheet-iron  pipe  of  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  deliver  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the 
stove.  The  heat  radiated  from  this  pipe  when  there  is  a 
brisk  fire  in  the  stove  will  cause  a  strong  draught  in  the 
flue  and  draw  the  air  out  of  the  schoolroom  through  the 
ventilating-duct." 

Whenever  a  new  school  building  is  to  be  erected  in  a 
rural  district,  this  very  simple  and  inexpensive  apparatus 
should  be  put  in.  The  good  which  would  follow  its  intro- 
duction would  be  well  worth  the  cost.  Many  country 
trustees  think  that  because  their  school  is  isolated  and  not 
hemmed  in  by  other  buildings  as  is  the  case  with  city 
schools,  no  attention  need  be  paid  to  ventilation,  that  it 
will  take  care  of  itself.  This  is  an  error.  If  the  building 
is  made  tight  so  that  it  can  be  properly  heated  and  made 
comfortable  for  cold  weather,  it  needs  a  ventilating  system. 
Hence  it  should  not  be  omitted  in  the  construction  of  a 
new  building. 

Ventilation  of  Old  Buildings.  —  When  the  ventilating 
system  is  not  put  in  during  the  construction  of  the  building, 
the  problem  of  securing  good  air  for  the  schoolroom  is  very 
difficult.  And  yet  something  may  be  done  if  the  situation 
is  carefully  studied.  In  the  absence  of  more  expensive 
devices,  a  board  may  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  win- 
dow so  that  the  lower  sash  can  be  raised  without  subjecting 
the  children  to  draughts,  and  the  fresh  air  allowed  to  enter 
between  the  two  window-sashes.  The  child  should  never 
be  exposed  to  a  draught.  The  danger  from  a  draught  is 
immediate,  that  from  foul  air  more  remote.  It  is  better 
even  to  allow  the  pupils  to  sit  in  a  close  room  for  a  time 
than  to  expose  them  to  a  draught.     If  the  air   becomes 


joS  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

foul,  let  there  be  a  short  recess  during  which  the  children 
are  exercised,  the  windows  thrown  open,  and  the  room 
flushed  with  fresh  air. 

Foul  air  in  the  room  will  be  unnoticed  by  the  inmates 
until  it  becomes  particularly  bad.  The  condition  of  the 
air  will  be  detected  at  once  by  one  coming  in  from  the 
fresh  air  outside.  Therefore  the  pupils  should  be  encour- 
aged to  report  the  situation  at  once  if  they  discover  impure 
air  in  the  room.  Smarting  sensation  of  the  eyes,  heaviness, 
listlessness,  drowsiness,  headache,  inability  to  give  atten- 
tion, are  evidences  of  foul  air  ;  and  when  these  signs  appear, 
there  is  no  economy  in  continuing  to  teach ;  the  evil  must 
be  corrected. 

The  temperature  of  the  room  should  be  kept  at  68  to 
70  degrees.  The  temperature,  however,  is  no  sure  indi- 
cation of  pure  air.  The  teacher  must  train  himself  to  be 
sensitive  to  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  of  his  school- 
room, and  he  should  never  forget  that  when  there  is  foul 
air,  his  first  duty  is  to  correct  the  evil.  Great  improve- 
ment in  the  ventilation  of  schoolhouses  has  been  made 
during  the  last  decade.  There  is  room  for  further  improve- 
ment, and  the  problem  is  still  under  investigation.  Hence, 
whenever  a  ventilating  plant  is  to  be  installed,  information 
as  to  the  latest  improvements  should  be  sought. 

Storeroom.  —  Every  school  building  should  be  provided 
with  a  room  in  which  the  apparatus,  maps,  school  supplies, 
books,  etc.,  can  be  securely  locked.  Lack  of  such  a  room 
is  often  responsible  for  a  considerable  loss  to  the  district. 
If  text-books  are  furnished  at  public  expense,  and  if  the 
school  possesses  suitable  implements  for  successful  work, 
the  school  property  amounts  to  a  considerable  sum.     There 


THE   SCHOOL   INTERIOR,  309 

should  be  a  suitable  and  safe  place  for  keeping  this  prop- 
erty, and  then  the  teacher  should  be  held  accountable  for 
its  preservation.  Trustees  sometimes  refuse  to  furnish 
the  necessary  supplies,  and  when  the  teacher  fails  to  take 
proper  care  of  the  school  property  it  only  aggravates  the 
difficulty.  If  a  storeroom  is  provided,  the  teacher  may 
well  be  held  accountable  for  the  property  committed  to  his 
care.  The  children  also  should  be  taught  to  exercise  the 
same  care  in  the  use  of  public  as  of  private  property. 
This  is  an  important  lesson  that  American  youth  need  to 
learn. 


APPENDIX. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.! 
COURSE    IN    THE    ANDERSON,    INDIANA,    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

The  moral  instruction  of  children  is  the  highest  duty- 
imposed  upon  teachers.  Many  children  receive  little  moral 
training  at  home ;  they  attend  neither  church  nor  Sunday 
school ;  therefore,  if  they  receive  moral  instruction  at  all,  it 
must  be  in  the  public  schools.  So  whatever  other  work  of 
this  course  is  slighted,  the  part  relating  to  moral  instruction 
should  be  carried  out. 

The  aim  of  moral  instruction  is  to  teach  the  child  to 
know,  to  love,  and  to  do  the  right.  It,  therefore,  appeals 
to  the  intellect,  to  the  sensibilities,  and  to  the  will.  While  all 
children  have  a  moral  conscience,  yet  what  is  right  and  what 
is  wrong  must  be  taught  to  them  the  same  as  other  facts. 
The  moral  judgment  must  be  developed.  This  culture  of 
the  moral  understanding  should  be  accompanied  by  a  heart 
culture  that  causes  the  child  to  love  the  good.  The  moral 
sensibilities  need  cultivation  as  well  as  the  moral  intellect. 
But  the  final  outgrowth  of  moral  training  is  upright  con- 
duct, and  unless  this  result  is  attained  the  training  goes 
for  naught.  The  child  should  be  taught  to  be  industrious, 
honest,  truthful,  obedient,  patriotic,  and  reverential.  His 
moral  acts  should  be  repeated  until  they  become  habits. 

1  Inserted  by  the  courtesy  of  Superintendent  J.  W.  Carr. 
3" 


312  A    NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Civic  obligations  should  constitute  a  part  of  the  moral 
instruction  of  children.  Teachers  should  teach  children 
what  they  owe  to  the  State,  and  how  they  can  best  discharge 
these  obligations,  both  as  children  and  as  adults.  If  chil- 
dren  spend  from  eight  to  twelve  years  in  the  public  schools, 
they  should  receive  such  training  and  discipline  as  will  fit 
them  for  citizenship. 

The  means  to  be  employed  in  giving  moral  instruction 
are  various,  —  a  few  only  can  be  mentioned  here.  No  elabo- 
ration is  deemed  necessary. 

1.  The  Example  of  the  Teacher.  —  All  children  are  crea- 
tures of  imitation,  and  are  influenced  greatly  by  their  sur- 
roundings. 

2.  The  Discipline  of  the  School.  —  A  well-ordered  and 
a  well-disciplined  school  is  a  veritable  nursery  for  the  train- 
ing of  children  in  morals.  In  such  a  school  moral  virtues 
are  not  only  taught  by  precept  and  example,  but  the 
children  are  trained  in  moral  acts.  They  learn  indus- 
try, truthfulness,  honesty,  kindness,  obedience,  politeness, 
respect,  and  reverence  by  constant  observation  and  daily 
practice. 

3.  By  Precept.  —  Teachers  should  give  positive  instruc- 
tion in  manners  and  morals.  This  instruction  should  be 
given,  not  only  incidentally  in  connection  with  other  lessons, 
but  the  first  period  of  the  day  should  be  set  apart  for  in- 
struction in  this  subject.  Beautiful  songs,  poems,  and  stories 
have  their  place  in  the  opening  exercises,  but  I  wish  to  com- 
mend especially  the  reading  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  moral  training  of  children. 


APPENDIX. 


3^3 


4.  By  Commendation.  —  Teachers  should  be  alert  to 
commend  religious  services,  including  attendance  at  church, 
Sunday  school,  and  religious  meetings  of  various  kinds,  as 
the  most  helpful  means  for  the  development  of  character. 
They  should  also  commend  obedience  and  respect  for  par- 
ents, the  obedience  and  respect  for  laws  of  the  school  and 
of  the  State. 

5.  By  Conferences  with  Parents.  —  If  the  school  is  to  do 
the  most  possible  in  developing  the  moral  character  of 
children,  there  must  be  mutual  understanding  and  sym- 
pathy between  teachers  and  parents.  The  school  is  capable 
of  supplementing  the  work  of  the  home,  and  the  home  the 
work  of  the  school. 

A  list  of  topics  that  should  receive  special  attention  will 
be  given  in  connection  with  the  outline  for  each  grade.  It  is 
not  enough  for  these  topics  to  be  taught  abstractly.  They 
can  be  presented  best  by  concrete  examples.  The  aim 
should  be  to  put  into  active  practice  the  moral  precepts 
taught. 

FIRST    GRADE. 

1.  Conversation  with  the  children,  in  which  the  teacher 
aims  to  secure  the  confidence  of  the  children  and  to  learn 
the  general  characteristics  of  each  individual, 

2.  Drill  in  sitting,  walking,  marching,  busy-work,  re- 
citing, etc.,  in  which  children  learn  the  ways  of  the  school. 
These  exercises  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  in  this 
way  children  are  taught  self-control  and  obedience. 

3.  Obedience  to  parents  and  teachers. 

4.  Kindness  to  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  playmates. 

5.  Unselfishness  —  sharing  playthings,  etc.,  with  others. 

6.  Love  of  parents. 


314 


A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


SECOND  GRADE. 


I.  Conversation  with  pupils,  in  which  teachers  aim  to 
secure  the  confidence  and  respect  of  the  children  and  to 
learn  the  peculiarities  of  each  individual. 

2.  Various  schoolroom  exercises,  in  which  children  are 
drilled  in  promptness,  obedience,  and  self-control. 

3.  Truthfulness  —  give  numerous  illustrations  to  enforce 
the  lesson.     See  "  Children's  Book  of  Moral  Lessons." 

4.  Kindness  to  animals  —  read  "  Black  Beauty." 

5.  Cleanliness  of  person  and  dress. 

6.  Pleasant  voice  and  pleasing  manners. 

7.  Love  of  home. 

8.  How  children  may  help  make  a  good  school  —  by 
being  quiet,  industrious,  polite,  etc. 

9.  Review  work  of  previous  grade. 

THIRD    GRADE. 

lo  Conversation  with  pupils  in  which  the  teacher  aims 
to  secure  their  confidence  and  respect  and  to  learn  the 
peculiarities  of  each  individual.  This  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. 

2.  Special  attention  to  the  various  schoolroom  exer- 
cises, in  which  the  pupils  are  trained  to  study,  to  obey 
promptly,  to  be  quiet,  to  help  others,  and  to  help  them- 
selves. 

3.  Cheerfulness,  and  the  advantages  it  is  to  one's  self, 
and  the  happiness  it  brings  to  others. 

4.  Honesty  and  its  rewards. 

5.  Respect  for  parents,  teachers,  strangers,  and  old 
people. 


APPENDIX. 


3^S 


6.  Good  habits,  also  some  things  we  wish  to  avoid  — 
swearing,  smoking,  chewing,  and  the  use  of  coarse  lan- 
guage. 

7.  Love  of  the  flag. 

8.  How  children  may  help  to  keep  the  city  clean  —  by 
not  throwing  paper  on  streets,  by  picking  up  papers,  etc., 
found  on  the  streets,  protecting  shade-trees,  not  marking 
on  fences,  buildings,  etc. 

9.  Review  the  topics  of  previous  grades. 


FOURTH    GRADE, 

1.  Conversation  with  pupils,  in  which  the  teacher  aims 
to  secure  their  confidence  and  respect  and  learn  the  pecu- 
liarities of  each. 

2.  Special  attention  to  schoolroom  exercises,  in  which 
the  pupils  learn  obedience,  promptness,  regularity,  cheer- 
fulness, helpfulness  to  others,  and  the  rules  of  true  polite- 
ness. 

3.  Self-respect  —  the  qualities  that  a  person  must  have 
before  he  will  respect  himself.  This  will  furnish  an  oppor- 
tunity to  review  most  of  the  subjects  presented  in  the 
previous  grades.  See  the  "  Children's  Book  of  Moral 
Lessons." 

4.  Some  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  children. 

5.  Respect  for  the  rights  and  privileges  of  others. 

6.  Politeness  at  home,  at  the  table,  on  the  street,  in 
company. 

7.  Letters  of  recommendation  —  good  habits  the  best 
recommendation  a  boy  or  girl  can  have. 

8.  Care  of  public  and  private  property  —  school  prop- 
erty, yards  and  fences  belonging  to  others,  etc. 


3l6  A   NEW    SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


FIFTH    GRADE. 

1.  Train  pupils  to  do  their  school-work  without  the 
teacher  continually  watching  and  urging  them.  Pupils 
should  frequently  be  tested  in  conduct.  It  may  be  well 
for  the  teacher  to  leave  the  room  sometimes  in  order  that 
the  pupils  may  test  themselves. 

2.  Street  conduct.  Pupils  should  be  given  directions 
concerning  the  proper  way  of  conducting  themselves  on  the 
street.     They  should  be  given  ways  for  testing  themselves. 

3.  Helpfulness  in  the  school.  Train  children  to  help 
themselves,  to  help  the  teacher,  to  help  their  fellows.  This 
will  not  be  effective  miless  children  are  actually  trained  to 
practise  these  virtues. 

4.  Industry  —  its  necessity,  its  benefits  and  rewards. 

5.  Promptness  and  regularity. 

6.  Economy  and  its  relation  to  getting  on  in  the  world. 

7.  Justice.  Examples  of  justice  should  be  taken  from 
the  home,  the  school,  the  playground,  and  society.  The 
idea  may  be  enforced  by  examples  of  justice.  See  "  Chil- 
dren's Book  of  Moral  Lessons." 

8.  ]\Iercy.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  temper  justice 
with  mercy. 

SIXTH    GRADE. 

1.  Duties  to  one's  self.  Cleanliness,  sobriety,  temper- 
ance, intellectual  development,  physical  exercise.  See 
"Children's  Book  of  Moral  Lessons." 

2.  Necessity,  rewards,  and  dignity  of  labor.  Children 
should  be  taught  to  honor  the  man  or  woman  who  works. 
They  should  also  be  taught  that  all  kinds  of  useful  labor 
are  honorable,  also  that  all  classes  of  persons  should  work. 


APPENDIX.  jT'7 

3.  Unselfishness  and  its  corresponding  vice  —  selfishness. 

4.  Reverence  for  the  aged,  for  those  in  authority,  and 
for  God. 

5.  Develop  a  proper  school  sentiment  in  reference  to 
study,  conduct,  politeness,  and  teach  pupils  how  they  can 
be  most  helpful  to  others.  Show  children  that  this  is  the 
best  training  they  can  possibly  have  to  fit  them  to  be  cit- 
izens. 

SEVENTH    GRADE. 

1.  The  family.  Reciprocal  duties  of  parents  and  chil- 
dren ;  reciprocal  duties  of  employers  and  employees. 

2.  Society.  Necessity  and  benefits  of  society.  Justice 
the  essential  condition  of  all  society.  Mutual  responsibility  ; 
human  brotherhood. 

3.  What  one  owes  to  his  country  —  obedience  to  the 
laws ;  the  services  of  citizenship  ;  defence  in  times  of  peril. 
Taxes  and  duties  —  condemnation  of  all  frauds  against  the 
State.  Voting  —  morally  obligatory,  it  must  be  free,  con- 
scientious, disinterested,  intelligent.  Rights  corresponding 
to  these  duties  —  individual  liberty,  liberty  of  conscience, 
liberty  of  labor,  liberty  of  association.  Guaranty  of  the 
security  of  the  life  and  property  of  all 

4.  Duty  of  the  strong  to  the  weak. 

5.  Test  the  pupils  in  conduct,  to  see  if  they  are  acquir- 
ing strength  in  self-direction  and  self-government  at  home, 
at  school,  on  the  street,  etc. 

EIGHTH    GRADE. 

1.  Freedom  —  political,  religious. 

2,  Patriotism  —  what  is  it  ?  How  should  we  show  our 
patriotism  ? 


3l8  A    NEW    SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

3.  True  manhood  and  true  womanhood. 

4.  The  ideal  family. 

5.  Careful  review  of  topics  suggested  in  seventh  grade. 

6.  Tests  in  conduct,  to  see  whether  or  not  pupils  know 
the  right  and  have  the  strength  to  do  the  right.  The 
virtues  implanted  should  bear  fruit  in  the  school  life  and 
home  life  of  the  children,  and  should  control  their  future 
life  wherever  they  may  be. 

HIGH-SCHOOL    GRADES. 

1.  Character  Study.  —  Character  study  should  form  an 
important  part  of  the  work  in  history  and  literature  in  the 
high  school.  All  the  moral  and  intellectual  elements  that 
go  to  make  up  character  can  in  this  way  be  studied  to 
advantage. 

2.  Duty  Should  be   Thoroughly  Discussed Duty  to 

family,  duty  to  society,  duty  to  the  State,  duty  to  self,  and 
duty  to  God.  Perhaps  there  is  no  other  subject  that  needs 
to  be  discussed  more  by  American  youths  than  this.  Again, 
the  pupils  should  see  the  supremacy  of  law  and  the  necessity 
of  all  persons  acting  in  conformity  with  law.  Pupils  should 
be  led  to  see  that  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  of  the 
family,  of  the  State,  and  of  God,  brings  suffering,  and  in 
many  instances  destruction.  This  needs  to  be  enforced 
by  numerous  examples. 

3.  Self-control  and  Self -direction. — These  subjects 
need  to  be  taught  not  so  much  by  precept  as  by  practice. 
Pupils  need  special  and  constant  drill  in  order  that  habits 
of  self-control  and  self-direction  may  become  thoroughly 
fixed.     The  principal  of  the  high  school  and  every  teacher 


APPENDIX. 


3^9 


should   give    special   attention    to   the   teaching   of    this 
subject. 

4.  Respect  for  and  Obedience  to  Law.  - —  This  subject 
should  be  taught  so  thoroughly  by  precept  and  example 
that  all  pupils  who  go  through  high  school  will  learn  it. 
The  aim  of  the  school  should  be  to  train  pupils  not  only  to 
obey  the  law,  but  to  take  pleasure  in  doing  so. 


INDEX. 


Absence,  an  iniustice  to  others,  109. 
Academic  training,  necessary,  12. 
Accuracy,  how  cultivated,  123. 

teaches  morals,  141. 
Address,  on  first  day  of  school,  35. 
Adler,     Felix,     on     personality     of 

teacher,  5. 
Advantages  of  the  mixed  school,  53. 

of  the  graded  school,  56. 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  Aristotle, 

23- 

Altruism,  of  the  teacher,  10. 

Ambition,    aroused    in    the    graded 
school,  57. 

Apparel,  to  be  neat,  102. 

influences  other  children,  148. 

Appeal  to  honor,  73. 
how  taught,  75. 

Appendix,  course  in  moral  instruc- 
tion, 310. 

Application,  for  a  position,  27. 
of  the  lesson  in  the  recitation,  226. 

Appointment,  of  teachers,  263 

Arbor  Day,  how  to  utilize,  288, 

Architecture,    of    school    buildings, 
284,  295,  301. 

Aristotle,  teacher  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  23. 
universal  knowledge  of,  233. 

Army,  German,  good  effects  of,  142. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  on  conduct,  130. 

Arnold,  of  Rugby,  as  a  teacher,  3, 
4,8. 
as  a  man,  278. 

Assignment,  of  the  lesson,  37,  209. 

Assistance,  giving    and  withholding 
of,  162. 

Assistant,  to  be  loyal,  282. 

Association,  third  step  in  the  recita- 
tion, 224. 

Associations,  teachers',  252. 

Athletic  sports,  171. 

Attendance,  in  graded  schools,  58. 
irregularity  in,  107. 


Attention,  necessity  of,  215. 

how  secured,  216. 
Authority,  of  the  teacher  to  be  re- 
spected, 98. 

of  officials  to  be  respected,  136. 

of  the  teacher,  167. 

when  to  be  used,  258, 

Bailey,    Prof.,    on    school-grounds, 
286. 

Basil  the  Great,  on  punishment,  86. 

Beecher,  class-rank  of,  167. 

Bell,  use  of,  125. 

Berlin,  recruits  in,  141. 

ventilation  of  school  in,  304. 

Bertram,  Dr.,  on  American  schools, 
279. 

Bible,  should  be  read  in  school,  34. 

Blackboard,  exercise  on  to  be  neat, 
123. 
use  of,  221. 
construction  of,  302. 

Boarding-place,  seeking  of,  28. 

Boniface,  Saint,  181. 

Books,  distribution  of,  37. 

Boy,  the  good  and  the  bad,  93. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  lesson  in  obedi- 
ence, 68. 

Brutality,  to  be  condemned,  99. 

Building,  school,  290. 

Bureaiis,  teachers',  27. 

Business  director,  in  cities,  262. 

Busy  work,  devices  for,  127. 

Butler,   scheme  of    relative   values, 
221. 

Calkins,  N.  A.,  8. 
Carelessness,  treatment  of,  loi. 
Carr,  J.  W.,  on  moral  instruction, 

153.  3^0- 
Cautions,  to  teachers,  155. 
Cellar,  of  school  buildings,  292. 
Character,  of  the  teacher,  4,  138. 
to  be  implanted,  170. 


321 


322 


INDEX. 


Character,  building  of,  234. 

study  of,  317. 
Charlemagne,  181. 
Cheating,  treatment  of,  116. 
Child,  right  to  education,  58. 

must  be  obedient,  68. 

not  to  be  condemned  too  hastily, 
160. 
Children,  love  for  essential,  6. 

sorrows  of,  7. 

employment  of,  38,  143. 

method  of  teaching,  208. 

must  be  given  the  concrete,  217. 

relation  to  superintendent,  276. 
Church,  has  a  part  in  education,  2. 

teacher  should  attend,  246. 
City  school,  57. 
Civihzation,  demands  of,  2. 
Classes,  size  of,  47. 
Classification,  of  school,  51. 
Class-rank,  173. 
Cleveland,  on  manners,  135, 
Cloak-rooms,  302. 

College,      influence      upon      lower 
schools,  57. 

speciahzation  in,  238. 
Comenius,  on  learning  to  do,  133. 
Commendation,  in  moral  teaching, 

312. 
Committee  of  twelve,  on  grading,  61 . 
Common  sense,  of  a  superintendent, 

8. 
Community,  teacher  responsible  to, 
20. 

should   appreciate   their  teacher, 
24. 

influenced  by  the  teacher,  138. 

watches  the  teacher,  160. 

idea  of  promotion,  188. 

interest  in  school,  160. 
Compulsory  law.   State  should  en- 
force, 108. 
Concentration,  in  study,  212. 
Confidence,  how  secured,  79. 

withdrawal  of,  92. 
Conscience,  to  be  awakened,  80. 
Contract,  of  teachers,  27. 
Control,  must  be  kept,  81,  167. 
Cooper,  Peter,  early  promise  of,  166. 
Co-operation,  among  teachers,  5. 

with  parents,  244. 
Corporal  punishment,  85,  276. 


Correspondence,  in  securing  a  posi* 

tion,  25. 
County  superintendent,  26. 

course  of  study  of,  63. 

on  discipline,  66. 
Country  school,  51,  53. 

grading  of,  60. 
Country  teacher,  28. 
Course  of  study,  how  made,  263. 

in  morals,  312. 
Courtesy,  virtue  of,  137. 
Cramming,  definition  of,  196. 
Criticism,  of  old-time  school,  124. 

by  superintendent,  265. 

by  parents,  274. 
Culture,  general,  to  be  fostered,  229. 
Curriculum,  to  be  broad,  222. 

improvement  of,  228. 

Dar\\'in,  early  characteristics  of,  104. 
Desks,  rules  for  adjusting,  298. 
De\'ices,  for  busy  work,  127. 
Dignity,  not  to  be  assumed,  34. 
Discipline,  on  first  day,  33. 

as  a  means  to  an  end,  66. 

example  of,  168. 

of  grade  teacher  best,  235. 

supt.  not  to  interfere  with,  268. 

principal  to  assist  in,  281. 

as  a  means  of  moral  instruction, 

311- 
Diseases,    teacher's    knowledge    of, 

242. 
Disorder,  to  be  checked,  67. 

children's  idea  of,  78. 
Disposition,   of  teacher,   should   be 

good,  7. 
District  clerk,  keeps  the  school  rec- 
ords, 29. 
Doctrines,  not  to  be  taught  in  the 

school,  169. 
Drill,  employment  of,  221. 
Drudgery,  of  school-work,  273. 
Dull  child,  patience  %vith,  165,  167, 
190. 
duty  of  supt.  toward,  277. 
Duty,  to  be  basis  of  choice,  103. 
in  performance  of  tasks,  126. 
regard  for,  129. 
of  the  teacher  to  pupils,  241. 
to  parents,  241. 
to  the  community,  245. 


INDEX. 


3'^3 


Duty,  to  the  school  board,  248. 
to  his  successor,  255. 
to  himself,  256. 

to  be  discussed  in  the  school- work, 
317- 

Economy,  of  time,  essential,  39. 

in  arrangement  of  schedule,  41. 
Education,  factors  of,  i. 

State's  duty  with,  3. 

a  natural  birthright,  167, 
Educational  values,  consideration  of, 

42. 
Effort,  to  be  rewarded,  173. 
Egypt,  story  of  Joseph  in,  149. 
Emerson,  on  character,  5. 
Employment  of  pupils,  39,  189. 

how  to  secure,  48, 

moral  purpose  of,  143. 
Emulation,  172. 

England,  effect  of  schools  in,  139, 
English,  errors  in,  26. 
Environment,  effect  of,  88. 

importance  of,  143. 

in  teaching  morality,  147. 
Etiquette,  attention  to  necessary,  134. 

among  teachers,  253. 
Evans,  Mrs.,  on  moral  training,  153. 
Evil,  not  to  be  anticipated,  71. 

of  tardiness,  105. 

of  sarcasm,  157. 
Evils,  different  ones  considered,  loi. 
Examinations,   employed  for  infor- 
mation of  parents,  20. 

abandonment  of,  185, 

in  promotion,  193. 

character  of,  195,  200. 

educational  value  of,  tqq. 

by  superintendents,  263. 
Example,  of  teacher,  16,  159,  311. 

in  punishment,  88. 

of  other  children,  152. 

effect  of,  171. 
Excuses,  for  tardiness,  105. 
Exhibits,  to  be  encouraged,  123. 
Experience,  importance  of,  156. 
Expulsion,  duty  of  school  board,  96. 
Exterior,  of  schools,  284. 
Eyesight,  care  of,  242. 

Faculty,  to  advise  the  pupil,  240. 
Farm-life,    trains    to    responsibility, 
IS- 


Father,  part  of  in  education,  2. 

in  correcting  irregularity,  no. 

in  home-work,  162. 
Favoritism,  charge  of,  176. 
Fighting,  treatment  of,  151. 
Firmness,  in  discipline,  72. 

in  requirements,  158. 
Fitch,  on   teaching,  14. 
"Formal  steps,"  Hcrbartian,  222. 
Forms,  of  politeness,  132,  137. 
France,  moral  instruction  in,  139. 

garb  of  children  in,  148. 
Frankness,    on    the    part    of    the 
teacher,  31,  78,  112. 

in  children,  157. 
Froebel,  as  a  teacher,  3. 

in  naming  the  kindergarten,  55. 

on  instruction,  163. 

Galileo,  early  character  of,  104. 
Genius,  need  of  teaching  of,  230. 
Genuineness,  of  the  teacher,  4. 

in  appeal  to  honor,  77. 
Germans,  respect  for  teachers  of,  23. 

love  for  music  of,  34. 

scheme  of  grading  of,  61. 

poHteness  of,  136. 

on  promotion,  187. 

on  reviews,  205. 

method  of  teaching  of,  207. 

ideas  concerning  food  of,  241. 

school  regulations  of,  279. 
Gladstone,  lesson  from,  150. 
Gordy,  on  teaching,  14. 

on  authority  of  teacher,  82. 
Government,  part  in  education  of,  i. 

of  school,  65. 
Grade,  teacher  of,  235. 

unity  of  purpose  of  teachers  of, 
271. 
Graded  school,  advantages  of,  56. 
Grading,  of  rural  schools,  51. 

of  German  schools,  52. 

plan  of,  60. 
Grant,  General,  at  West  Point,  166. 
Great  Teacher,  spirit  of,  32. 
Greenwood,  on  specialization,  228. 
Group  plan,  of  grading,  236. 

Habits,  discipline  to  fix  them,  70. 

supplant  evil  with  good  ones,  loi. 
Harris,   Dr.  W.  T.,  on  number  of 
school  days,  54. 


3^4 


INDEX, 


Harris,  on  promotion,  185. 

on  relative  values,  231. 
Health  of  the  teacher,  9. 

of  the  children,  18. 
Heating,  303. 

Helpfulness,  to  be  taught  to  chil- 
dren, 152. 
Herbartians,  on  instruction,  163. 

on  the  recitation,  222. 
High-school,    minimum   course   for 
teachers,  13. 

specialization  in,  237. 

different  courses  of,  239. 
History,  employed  in  teaching  mor- 
als, 149. 
Hoffmann,  picture  by,  148. 
Home,  part  of  in  education,  t. 

environment  of,  88,  102,  iiS,  277. 
Home-work,  too  much  not  to  be  al- 
lowed, 46. 

a  father  concerning,  162. 
Honesty,  teacher  to  practise,  160. 
Honor,  appeal  to,  74,  117. 

of  a  boy,  112. 

in  ranking,  174. 
Huling,  R.  G.,  on  the  principal,  275, 

276,  279. 
Humboldt,  Alexander  von,  136. 
Hygiene,  should  be  taught,  241. 

state  laws  concerning,  291. 

Idleness,  how  treated,  126. 

Illustration,  use  of,  218. 

Imitation   not  to  be  ser\dle,  269. 

Immortal  beings,  children  to  be  con- 
sidered as,  169. 

Impudence,  treatment  of,  119. 

Incentives,  for  school- work,  171. 
the  highest,  180. 

Incidents,  to  be  utilized,  145. 

Inclination,    not   to   govern   choice, 
JO'S. 

Indi\idual,  rights  of,  67. 

to  be  considered  in  punishment, 
88. 

Individuality,  promulgated  in  mixed 
school,  54. 

Industry,  to  be  required,  126. 

Instruction,  right  kind  of,  163. 
methods  of,  208,  224. 

Intellectual  growth,  teacher  respon- 
sible for,  20. 


Interest,  destroyed  by  marking,  217. 

how  aroused,  217. 

permanency  of,  230. 
Interior,  of  the  school,  295. 
Introduction,  how  to  give,  133. 
Invention,  176. 

Irregularity,  in  attendance,  107. 
Isolation,  as  a  form  of  punishment, 
91. 

Jacob,  story  of,  150. 

Jesuits,  use  of  emulation,  172. 

Jews,  pohteness  of,  136. 

Johnson,  Dr.,  on  interest,  217. 

Joseph,  story  of,  149. 

Jukes  family,  criminal  record  of,  108. 

Justice,  teaching  of,  146. 

Kindergarten,  how  named,  55. 
Knowledge,    to   be   thorough,    221, 
225. 

La  Salle,  on  grading,  228. 

Law,  respect  for  to  be  taught,  73. 

sustains  the  teacher,  121. 
Laziness,  how  treated,  102. 
Leipsic,  lesson  in  school  of,  241. 
Lesson,  how  to  assign,  37,  209. 

in  silence,  124. 

essentials  of,  212. 
Letter,  of  apph'cation,  26. 
Letters,  as  svinbols  in  marking,  174, 
Liberty,   essential   for   the   teacher, 

282. 
Light,  in  the  schoolroom,  291,  300. 
Lincoln,  lessons  from,  150. 
Literature,  use  of  in  moral  instruc 
tion,  149. 

educational,  activity  in,  232. 

should  be  supported,  251. 
Livingstone,  lessons  from,  150. 
Locke,  on  personal  inclination,  103. 
Logic,  teacher  must  possess,  10. 
Lang,  W.  J.,  on  obedience  of  ani- 
mals, 243. 
Lowell,  on  the  spirit  of  the  teacher,  5. 
Loyalty,  to  be  inculcated,  250. 

of  teachers  to  eacn  other,  254. 
Luther,  concerning  singing  in  school, 

34- 
translation  of  the  Scripture,  81. 
Lying,  treatment  of,  115. 


INDEX. 


2>^S 


Lying,  compared  with  loose  thinking, 

123. 
Lyon,Marj',on  character  of  women,  5 . 

Manners,  to  be  taught,  134. 
Harden,  on  dunces,  167. 
Marking,  character  of,  177. 

purpose  of,  178. 

method  of,  178. 
Materials,  of  the  school,  29. 

of  graded  schools  better,  58. 
McMurry,  scheme  of  all-round  de- 
velopment, 231. 
Meetings,  of  teachers,  271. 

of  parents,  244,  282. 
Memory,  examinations  not  mere  test 
of,  201. 

Dr.  Johnson  on,  217. 

in  learning  a  rule,  235. 
Methods,  of  teaching,  .15. 

should  be  the  best,  1^9. 

of  Germans,  207*^ '' 

variety_in,  222^.^ 

different  kinds  of,  ^24,. 
Mischief,  distinction  of  made,  167. 
Mixed  school,  program  in,  37. 

arrangement  of  lessons  in,  44. 

advantages  of,  53,  59. 
Monitor,  use  of,  77,  81. 
Morals,  teacher  as  affecting,  17,  19. 

at  recess,  45. 

taught  by  appeal  to  honor,  80. 

of  the  school  must  be  good,  95. 

in  treating  tardiness,  107. 

in  and  out  of  school,  127. 

chapter  on,  138. 

how  to  teach,  140. 

in  connection  with  out-buildings, 

293- 
course  in,  310. 
Music,  in  Italy  or  Gef-many,  148. 

an  assistance  to  order,  152. 
Miinsterberg,  Prof.,  on  the  natural 

bent,  229. 
Mutilation,  of  school  property,  36. 

Nagging,  must  not  be  indulged  in, 

69.  73- 

habit  of  in  teacher,  168. 
Names,  how  to  secure,  35. 
National    Educational    Association, 

on  grading,  61. 


Nature  study,  in  country  schools,  55. 
Neatness,  how  cultivated,  122. 

in  dress,  173. 

in  work  done,  221. 
Newton,    Sir   Isaac,   early   promise 

of,  166. 
Nightingale,  Florence,  lessons  from, 

ISO- 
Noise,  treatment  of,  67. 

teacher  not  to  set  bad  example  of, 

125- 
Normal  school,  training  of  students 

in,  155- . 
Note-books,  in  German  schools,  123. 
for  materials  on  morals,  147. 
on  offences  committed,  95. 

Obedience,  essential  to  good  order, 
67. 
often  not  learned  at  home,  98. 
to  law  to  be  taught,  318. 
Offence,  punishment  to  be  sequence 

of,  86. 
Offenders,  to  be  called  to  strict  ac- 
count, 7,  79. 
should  be  shown  the  wrong,  92. 
One-session  plan,  evils  of,  46. 
Opening,  of  school,  34. 
Opportunity,  of  the  teacher,  15. 

of  the  mixed  school,  54. 
Order,    rests     chiefly    upon     grade 

teacher,  283. 
Organization  on  the  first  day,  ^iZ' 

of  graded  school,  56. 
Oswego  normal  school,  Dr.  Sheldon 

of,  157. 
Out-buildings,  control  of,  151. 

character  of,  293. 
Oxford  scholarships,  176. 

Padcrewski,  to  a  talented  boy,  230. 
Parents,  duty  of  to  teachers,  16. 

in  regard  to  regularity,  58,  107. 

may  use  corporal  punishment,  85. 

to  be  consulted,  92. 

boastings  of,  128. 

in  teaching  politeness,  133. 

how  they  should  help,  164. 

duty  of,  210. 

factor  in  selection  of  course,  239. 

duty  of  teacher  towards,  243. 

relation  to  superintendent,  274. 


326 


INDEX. 


Parents,  interest  in  school-grounds, 
290. 

conferences  with,  312. 
Parents'  meetings,  244,  282. 
Parker,  Col.  F.  W.,  as  a  teacher,  3. 

on  laziness,  102. 

on  his  own  limitations,  166. 
Patience,  necessity  of,  6,  69. 

trials  of,  157. 

with  the  dull  child,  165. 
Pedagogy,  works  on,  232. 

advance  in,  259. 
Pedantry,  of  teachers,  29. 
Permanency,   lack  of  a  great  evil, 

53.  60. 
Perseverance,  acquired  through  ef- 
fort, 165. 
Pestalozzi,  as  a  teacher,  3. 
Physical,  importance  to  morals,  141. 

care  of  body,  241. 
Pictures,  for  moral  purposes,  148. 
Play,  use  of,  167. 
Playground,  the  teacher  on,  45,  172. 

pupils  on,  91. 

morals  taught  there,  141. 

should  be  attractive,  2S6. 
Politeness,  a  virtue,  130. 

how  taught,  131. 
Position,  how  secured,  25. 
Potsdam,  soldiers  at,  142. 
Precept,   as  a  means  of  moral  in- 
struction, 31 1. 
Preparation,  of  the  teacher,  12. 

for  opening  school,  25. 

first  step  in  the  recitation,  223. 
Presentation,  second  step  in  the  reci- 
tation, 223. 
Princeton,  Cleveland  at,  135. 
Principal,  expects  order  of  teacher, 

155- 
relation  to  teacher,  168. 
advice  of,  in  promotion,  192. 
Mr.  Huling  on,  275. 
duties  of,  27S. 
Principles,  relating  to  punishment, 

Pnvileges,  withdrawal  of,  91. 
Prizes,  146,  174,  182. 
Professional  training,  necessary,  12, 
T56. 
character  of,  14. 
Piofanity,  treatment  of,  151. 


Program,  tentative  one  at  first,  41. 

leaving  old  one  at  school,  256. 
Promises,  to  be  kept,  160. 
Promotion,  to  satisfy  parents,  20. 

history  of,  184. 

object  of,  186. 

frequency  of,  1S8. 

teacher's  judgment  in,  191. 

how  determined,  192. 

relation  of  superintendent  to,  276. 
Property,  of  school  to  be  preserved, 

31.  36. 
Psychology,  necessity  of,  15. 
Punctuality,  necessity  of,  105. 
Punishment,  character  of,  84. 

definition  of,  84. 

kinds  of,  89. 

corporal,    97,  276. 
Pupil,  regard  of  for  prizes,  177. 

estimate  of  promotion,  186. 

promotion  of,  191. 
Pupils,  physical  well-being  of,  18. 

place  in  recitation,  37. 

of  graded  school,  57. 

relation  of  to  teacher,  82. 

duty  of  teacher  towards,  241. 

Qualities,  of  the  teacher,  4. 
Questioning,  in  teaching,  208. 
art  of,  214. 

Ranking,  in  college,  173,  174. 
Rebellion,  treatment  of,  119. 
Recapitulation,  of  first  day's  work, 
40. 

importance  of,  48. 

of  daily  schedule,  49. 

of  scheme  of  grading,  63. 

fourth  step  of  recitation,  224. 
Recess,    abandonment    of    discour- 
aged, 44. 

pupils  at,  150. 

teacher's  conduct  at,  151. 
Recitation,  seating  pupils  in,  37. 

number  of  a  day,  47. 

in  the  mixed  school,  54. 

purpose  of,  177,  265, 

marking  of,  179. 

use  of  term,  207. 

Herbartian  steps  of,  222. 
Recreation,  of  pupils,  46. 

of  the  teacher,  31. 


INDEX. 


327 


Reforrn,    not    primary    purpose    of 

school,  93. 
Register,  old  one  to  be  socured,  2p. 

use  temporary  one  at  first,  35. 
Regularity,  of  attendance,  58. 
Religion,  morning  exercises  teach,  34. 

necessary  to  complete  education, 
168. 

respect  for  to  be  taught,  247. 
Reports,  to  parents,  20,  95. 

to  school  board,  248. 

to  superintendent,  273. 
Reproof,  as  a  form  of  punishment, 
89.^ 

effectiveness  of,  158. 
Repeal,  of  imnecessary  rules,  73. 
Respect,  won  by  firmness,  83. 

for  the  aged,  135. 

for  law,  318. 
Responsibility,  of  the  teacher,  12,  15. 

country  boys  trained  to,  55. 

of  teacher  for  discipline,  155. 
Reverence,  need  of  cultivating,   17, 
90. 

for  old  age,  136. 
Reviews,  different  kinds  of,  203. 

to  be  oral  and  written,  206. 
Rewards,  of  the  teacher,  21. 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  early  charac- 
teristics of,  104. 
Rhodes,  Cecil,  Oxford  scholarships 

of,  176. 
Rights,  of  pupils  to  be  preserved,  67. 
Rivalry,  natural  instinct,  171,  173. 
Roll  of  honor,  as  school  device,  109, 
Romans,  politeness  of,  136. 
Rosenkranz,  on  authority,  7. 

on  obedience,  82. 

on  truth,  123. 

on  politeness,  131. 
Rousseau,  on  education,  86. 
Rugby,  Arnold  of,  3,  4,  8,  278. 

Tom  Brown  of,  152. 
Rule,  necessity  of  learning,  225. 
Rules,  how  to  make,  70, 

Salary,  of  teacher,  21. 

not  chief  motive,  28, 
Sarcasm,  bad  effects  of,  98,  157. 
Schedule,  carrying  out  of,  37. 

essentials  to  be  studied,  41. 
Schiller,  early  characteristics  of,  104. 


Scholarships,  176. 
School,  opening  of,  25. 

first  day  of,  ^^. 

mixed,  37. 

classification  of,  51. 

the  old-time,  222. 

specialization  in  elementan,',  238. 
School  board,  estimate  of  teachers  of, 

5- 

in  selection  of  teachers,  15. 

should  be  interested,  30. 

sustain  teacher,  121. 

duty  of  teacher  to,  248. 

on  hygienic  conditions,  296. 
Scho(4  building,  to  be  visited,  29. 

kind  of,  290. 
School  government,  chapter  on,  65. 

must  aim  at  good  habits,  70. 
School-grounds,  285. 

choice  of,  286. 

improvement  of,  2S8. 

to  be  made  attractive,  290. 
School  morals,  chapter  on,  138. 
Schoolroom,  seating  of,  29,  298. 

to  be  the  central  idea  in  planning 
a  building,  292. 

size  and  shape  of,  297. 
School  subjects,  arrangement  of,  42. 
School  virtues,  chapter  on,  122. 
Scolding,  evils  of,  158. 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  early  life  of,  166. 
Scrap-book,  for  stories,  etc.,  147. 

value  of,  150. 
Seating,  on  the  first  morning,  36. 
Seats,  for  the  recitation,  38. 

Dr.  Shaw  on,  298. 
Seat-work,  to  be  specified,  48,  163. 
Sectarianism,   to  be  excluded  from 

schools,  170. 
Self-activity,  taught  by  Froebel,  163. 
Self-control,  36,  317. 
Self-discipline,  70,  171. 
Self-exertion,  necessity  of,  130. 
Self-reliance,  in  a  mixed  school,  53. 

necessary  for  teacher,  65. 
Self-sacrifice,  lessons  in,  153. 

case  of,  161. 
Seneca,  on  punishment,  86. 
Sexes,  mingling  of,  44,  150. 
Shades,  value  of,  300. 
Shaw,  Dr.  E.  R.,  on  school  hygiene, 
284,  291. 


328 


INDEX. 


Sheldon,  Dr.  E.  A.,  8,  137. 
Silence,  kind  of  to  be  taught,  124. 
Singing,  on  the  first  morning,  34. 
Skill,  with  dull  child,  165. 
Sneaking,  despicable  character  of,  78. 
Spartans,  poUteness  of,  136, 
Specialization,  228. 

advantages  of,  232, 

below  high  school,  234. 

in  the  high  school,  237. 
Spencer,  on  punishment,  87. 
Spying,  meanness  of,  73,  151. 
Spirit,  of  politeness,  137. 
Standing,  in  class,  174. 
State  and  education,  3,  g. 

must  protect  the  cMld,  14. 

on  grading,  64. 

punishments  of,  84. 

theory  of  punishment,  86, 

duty  to  incorrigibles,  96. 

should  secure  regularity,  108. 
Stealing,  treatment  of,  117. 
Storeroom,  308. 
Stoy,  K.  v.,  pupils  of,  118. 

on  re\'iemng,  203. 

on  all-round  development,  243. 
Study,  how  to,  211. 
Sturm,  courses  of  study  of,  228. 
Success,  of  pupils,  a  reward  to  the 

teacher,  23. 
Superintendent,  chapter  on,  261. 

executive  duties  of,  261. 

as  supervisor,  264. 

in  visiting  schools,  265. 

leadership  of,  270. 

in  teachers'  meetings,  271. 

reports  to,  273. 

relation  to  parents,  274. 

relation  to  children,  276. 
Suspension,  a  form  of  punishment, 

92.- 
Suspicion,  to  be  avoided,  280. 

Symbols,  used  in  marking,  179. 

SjTnpathy,    between    teacher    and 

principal,  283. 

Tale-bearing,  by  Httle  children,  no. 

treatment  of,  113. 
Tardiness,  treatment  of,  105. 

an  example  of,  161. 
Tasks,  child  not  allowed  to  avoid. 


Tasks,  training  to  perform,  126,  164 

Tattling,  evils  of,  no. 

Teacher,  personahty  of,  i,  5,  237. 

high  calling  of,  3. 

quahties  of  necessarj',  4,  251. 

not  "born,"  12. 

responsibilit}'  of,  15,  82. 

place  of  in  societ}',  16. 

true  character  of,  17,  138,  248. 

rewards  of,  21. 

duty  on  first  day  of  school,  ^^, 

enthusiasm  of,  37. 

must  lay  broad  plans,  51. 

must  keep  order,  65,  156. 

is  clothed  with  authorit}',  68. 

must  \sin  support  of  pupils,  72, 
229. 

must    apply  theory    of    punish- 
ment, 88. 

must  be  fair  and  just,  89. 

must  not  be  brutal,  99. 

must  study  child's  interests,  103. 

must  not  allow  impudence,  119. 

must  have  reser\'e  work,  126. 

should  teach  poHteness,  131. 

must  know  his  own  limitations, 

151- 
must  not  threaten  or  scold,  158. 
relation  of  to  principal,  168,  282. 
in  the  matter  of  prizes,  177. 
burdens  of,  178. 
judgment  of  in  promotions,  191, 

202. 
in  re\iews,  204. 
relation  to  parents,  92,  205. 
must  be  prepared,  207. 
in  assigning  the  lesson,  209. 
in  questioning,  214. 
must  himself  be  interested,  220. 
work  of  in  the  recitation,  223. 
how  efficienry  of  is  determined, 

234- 
duty  of  to  community,  245. 
duty  of  to  school  board,  248. 
duty  of  to  his  profession,  250. 
health  of,  257. 
pedantry  of,  258,  260. 
growth  of   259. 
choice  of,  263. 
attitude  of  superintendent  toward, 

266. 
freedom  of,  269. 


INDEX. 


3^9 


Teacher,  should  make  reports  to  su- 
perintendent, 273. 

should  know  hygiene,  285. 

should  plan  for  the  future,  289. 

should  care  for  school  property, 
294- 
Teachers,  securing  positions  of,  25. 

of  graded  schools,  56. 

lack  of  permanency  of,  290. 
Teachers'  bureaus,  27. 
Teachers'    meetings,    character    of, 

271. 
Temperance,    influence  of   teacher, 

138. 
Temptation,  must  not  be  too  great, 
78. 

must  be  considered,  88. 

not  voluntary  given,  119. 
Tests,  character  of,  201. 

advantages  of,  202. 
Text-books,  distribution  of,  37. 

to  be  kept  neat,  122. 

use  of  by  Germans,  207. 

questions  from,  214. 

use  of,  224. 
Thoroughness,  in  study,  212. 
Three-grade  plan,  61. 
Threatening,  to  be  avoided,  158. 
Thuringian  forest,  Froebel  in,  55. 

a  trip  through,  181. 
Training,  of  teachers,  12. 
Transportation,  of  pupils,  59. 
Trustee,  attitude  of  to  teachers,  12. 


Truthfulness,  how  taught,  127. 
must  be  in  word  and  in  deed,  159 

Uniformity,  of  grading,  61. 
United  States,  Commissioner  of  £du 

cation  oJ,  54. 
Unity,  in  school-work,  270. 
University,  speciahzation  in,  238. 
Unselfishness,  of  politeness,  130. 
in  self-sacrifice,  153. 

Variety,  with  children,  218. 
Ventilation,  teacher  responsible  for, 
18. 

discussion  of,  297,  303. 

of  old  buildings,  307. 
Verrill,    Prof.,   etiquette  shown  by, 

254. 
Virtues,  school,  122. 
Visits,  of  superintendent,  277. 
Vulgarity,  control  of,  151. 

Warning,  before  making  a  rule,  71. 

before  suspension,  95. 

compared  with  threatening,  158. 
Wartburg,  trip  to,  181. 
Washington,  lessons  from,  150. 
Watt,  early  character  of,  104,  166. 
WTiispering,  treatment  of,  114. 
Willard,  Frances  E.,  150. 
Windows,  of  the  school,  29,  300. 
Word,  should  be  kept,  159. 


The  Foundations  of  Education 

A  New  Book  on  Pedagogy 
By  Dr.  Levi  Seeley 

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The  Aim  of  Education. 

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Who  Can  Be  Educated  ! 

Elective  Studies. 

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Methods  of  Instruction. 

Play  as  an  Educational  Factor. 

Habits  and  their  Formation. 

Educational  Limitations. 

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he  alone  is  the  educated  man,    for  he  alone  is  capable 
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Quietism  and  Its  Key  (Southwick.)  $J.OO. 

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until  recently  published  by  the  b.  B.  CO.,  each  50  Cts» 
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Test  Examples  in  Arith.,  with  Answers.    Revised, 

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For  Teachers  and  Siudents 


in 

U.  S.  History^  Geography,  English   Gra}?ifnar 

Physiology  and  Arithmetic 

By  G.  Dallas  Lind 

Author  of  "Best  Methods  of  Teaching  in  Country- 
Schools  " 

Cloth,  224  pages.     200  Lessons.     Regular  price,  $1.2^ 
(  To  Teachers,  $1.00^ 


A  Specimen  Outline  Lesson  in  U.  S.  History 

Outline  Lesson  LVII 

McKinley's  Administration 

''''The  peace  we  have  luon  is  not  a  selfish   truce  ofi  artns, 
but  one  -whose  tonditions  presage  good  to  hutnanity." 

Explosion  of  the  "  Maine  " 

Spanish-American   War: — 

Dewey  at  Manila 

Sampson  Bombards  San  Juan 

Sinking  of  the  "  Merrimac  " 

Schley  Destroys  Cervera's  Fleet 

Stamp  Tax 

Battles  of  El  Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill 

Ponce  Surrenders  to  General  Miles 

Manila  Captured 

Annexation  of  Hawaii 

Treaty  of  Peace  Signed  at  Paris 

Peace  Conference  at  the  Hague 

War  with  the  Philippine  Insurgents 

See  Montgomery  3,  McMaster's,  Lee's  CT  .ttty  other  recent 
Hsstory  0/  the  United  States. 

Have  your  pupils  write  a  brief  account  of  the 
Spanish-American  War. 

HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE        New  York  City 


MY    HISTORY    LESSONS 

And   The 

BOOKS     I     HAVE     READ 


Outline  Note-books  for  Both 


FLEXIBLE    BOARDS 25    CciltS    Cach BLANK    BOOK    STYLE 

These  two  new  notebooks  are  a  new  device  that  make  pos- 
sible the  keeping  of  a  systematic,  uniform,  concise  and  complete 
record  of  one's  history  lessons  and  of  the  books  one  reads.  They 
will  be  eminently  serviceable  for  recording  the  data  of  history  les- 
sons, or  for  recalling  impressions  of  books  read  ;  and  will  be  pecu- 
liarly practicable  for  teachers — to  place  in  the  hands  of  students  for 
recording  and  preserving  unpretentious  analyses  of  the  studies  in  his- 
tory, or  of  books  read  in  class  and  in  general  reading.  These  two 
notebooks  embody  an  original  device.  The  many  advantages  of  this 
really  successful  and  popular  device  are  : 

It  enables  teachers  to  keep  track  of  home  ■work  and 

to  secure  uniformity  throughout  the  school 
It  is  logical.     It  is  pedagogical 
It  is  simple,  concise,  complete 
It  economizes  time  and  labor 
It  develops  thought,  attention,  discriminatioa 
It  provides  permanent  data 
It  assists  the  memory 
It  w^ill  develop  the  critical  faculties 
It  encourages  self-activity,  self-direction 
It  encourages  systematic  habits  and  neatness 
It  is  inexpensive 

The  few  well-arranged  headings  are  so  simple  and  obvious  that 
the  teacher  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether  the  pupils'  history  study  or 
prescribed  book-reading  has  been  done  attentively,  intelligently  and 
thoroughly.     'Tis  a  teachers'  boon,  simply  as  a  teachers'  time-sa'ver  ! 

HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE,  Publishers  of 

How  To  Study  Literature,  75  cents 

Smyth's     American     Literature,     90     cents 

Trimble's  Handbook  Eng.  and  Amer.  Literature,  $1.30 

3J -33-35  West  15th  Street  New  York  City 


SOMETHING      ELSE 


Our  two   new  notebooks  enLitled 

Brief  Outline  of  MY  HISTORY  LESSONS 
Brief  Outline  of  BOOKS  I  HA  VE  READ 

Adopted  at  sight  by  scores  of  History  teachers,  or  Literature 
teachers,  who  say  that  this  truly  simple  new  idea  fills  a  niche 
hitherto  unoccupied,  and  is  a  much  needed  device. 

We  trust  that  the  idea  will  appeal  to  you  at  a  glance,  whether 
as  a  teacher  desiring  something  to  insure  intelligent,  faithful  reading  by 
the  pupils,  or  ai  a  student  wishing  to  keep  notes  which,  in  the  very 
writing,  impress  the  memory — notes  which  also  supply  ready  data 
tor  reviews  and  at  examination  time.  Everj'body  who  reads  intel- 
ligently knows  the  desirability  of  having  a  record  in  concise  form 
and  containing  all  the  important  points  about  an  episode  in  history, 
or  about  the  book  one  has  read,  for  handy  reference  at  all  times. 

If  you  are  a  teacher  of  History  or  of  Literature  you  will  recog- 
nize the  utility  of  the  device  for  each  of  your  pupils.  The  very 
fact  of  noting  down  the  names  of  the  characters  or  participants,  the 
principal  events  and  quotations,  helps  to  impress  them  on  the  mem- 
ory of  the  student,  and  renders  them  eass  to  recall.  Furthermore, 
it  will  effect  another  result  very  much  to  be  desired — that  of  caus- 
ing lessons  to  be  studied  and  books  to  be  read  with  care  and  thor- 
oughness. Besides,  as  a  great  time-safer  in  his  studies  the  student 
will  welcome  it,  if  for  no  other  reason.  As  a  teachers^  time-saver 
is  is  a  teachers'  boon  !  If  you  have  a  History  class  or  a  Literature 
class  w-e  shall  be  pleased  to  send  you,  on  request,  a  copy  for  exam- 
ination with  a  view  to  adoption. 

Teachers  ivbo  ba-ve  tested  this  de-vice  assure  us  that  their  pupils 
benefit  from  eight  to  tivci-ve  added  points  in  examinations. 


FLEXIBLE     BOARDS 25     CciltS    Cacli BLANK     BOOK    STYLE 


HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE,  Publishers  of 

How  To  Study  Literature,  75  cents 

Smyth's    American    Literature,     90    cents 

Trimble's  Handbook  Eng.  and  Amer.  Literature,  ^1.30 

31-33-35  West  JSth  Street  New  York  Qty 


Mastering    a   Classic 

Having  read  a  book,   are  you  prepared  m  deciare 

that   you  have   made   it  really  your  own?     Can  you 

discuss   it   or  write   about  it  in  a  thoroughly  intclii- 

rent   and    comrirehendive    way.  as  if  you  had  really 

■d  it  up  completely  ? 

-  here  are  many  text-books  oi:  literature.  But  so 
tar  no  -v.-irk  has  appeared  which  provides  sj'^tennatic 
instruction  in  the  study  of  lif-rature  itself,  applicable 
to  every  classic,  let  us  say,  or  to  any  classic. 

Such  a  book  we  published  last  year.  It  is  entitled 
How  to  Study  Literature.  It  is  a  guide  to  the  study  of 
jterary  productions.  Taking  up  Narrative  Poetry 
first,  an  ouiline  is  given,  in  the  form  of  questions, 
which  will  lead  the  student  to  comprehend  the  sub- 
ject matter,  to  analy-ze  the  structure,  to  study  the 
rharacters,  the  descriptions,  the  style  and  the  metre — 
of  such  a  work  for  example  as  Tennyson's  "Princess" 
or  Coleridge's  "Ancient  ^lariner,"  Next  follows 
X^yriV,  Poetry,  with  questions  iox  \\v&  study  of  the  thought, 
tht  nood,  the  style,  the  metre ;  and  suggestions 
for  comparative  study  and  collateral  reading  In  a 
similar  way  the  drama,  the  essay,  the  oration  and  the 
novel  are  taken  up,  and  questions  given  which  will  lead 
to  a  full  comprehension  of  the  work  studied. 

The  author  is  a  successful  teacher  in  one  of  the 
great  normal  schools.  The  book  grew  up  in  the  class 
room,  and  so  is  practical  in  every  detail,  not  only 
adapted  for  class  use  in  schools,  but  also  the  very  thing 
for  literary  societies,  reading  circles,  and  fireside   study. 

The  list  of  terms  it  contains  to  designate  any 
literary  qnality  or  characteristic  one  may  wish  to 
describe,  is  a  one  wor  h  having. 

Teachers  rvho  hav-'  tested  this  book  as  a  class-book^  in  con- 
nection udf\  07ir  re'd)  cevice  for  recording  one's  reading 
(bo:.ksi  have  ke.^d,  25  cents  postpaid)  assure  us  that 
iJu'ir ptipih  benefit  to  the  extent  of  eight  to  twelve  adcicii 
Joints  in  exandjzations. 

How  To   Study  Litefatuff© 

Price  75  cents,  postpaid 

HINTDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE,  Publbnera 
5-33^-35  West  J5Ui  StlssU.^^  .  New  Yoi-J 


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